Introduction
1. General information about Japan
2. Characteristics of the peoples of Japan
Conclusion
List of literary sources
Introduction
Japan is an amazing country. Everything is unique here - cities, language, culture. Everyone who has ever been to Japan claims that they have not seen anything like it in any other country in the world.
Why is there so much inexplicable charm for us in the Land of the Rising Sun? The main reason, probably, is that the Japanese have always been able to find harmony in everything.
In this work, we will be able to plunge into the history of ancient Japan, learn a lot of interesting things about life in this country, try to understand modern Japanese culture, learn the secrets of cooking, understand that Japanese "anime" is not just cartoons, but a genre of art, learn the secrets of oriental medicine , the origins of the oldest philosophy, according to which the Japanese people still live.
Currently, in the era of fundamental changes in the culture of Russia, the most significant is the study of the steadily developing culture of those peoples with whom one could compare modern Russian culture and adhere to any specific aspects of cultural development. One of these cultural standards is Japan, which amazes with its morals, customs, and incredible fantasies of Japanese artists who presented the whole world with amazing images of Anime characters, inspired us to create this unique portal.
Thus, Japan is a country with a centuries-old cultural heritage and technologies far reaching the future. Each of these resources is unique in its own way and remarkable for its content and colorful materials, which are collected and placed for a detailed overview of Japanese culture and expanding the horizons of its visitors.
Consequently, the purpose of this work is to determine the main aspects of the cultural development of the peoples of Japan, which can subsequently be compared with the Russian development of culture.
The subject for study will be the people of Japan and their culture, respectively.
1. General information about Japan
The territory of Japan consists of many islands. There are about 7,000 of them and most of them are not large in size. Only four main islands can be considered relatively large: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. They account for 98% of the entire country.
The total area of \u200b\u200bJapan is 372.2 thousand square meters. km, which is 1/45 of the territory of Russia. In terms of territory, Japan is comparable to Finland (338 thousand sq. Km) or Paraguay (406 thousand sq. Km). The distance from the northern to the southern point of the Japanese Islands is about 3 thousand km.
The water area of \u200b\u200bJapan is diverse: the Pacific Ocean in the east, the Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan in the west, the East China Sea in the south, the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk in the north, and the Inland Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan between the islands of Honshu and Shikoku.
The climate of this country is diverse. There are places in the north where the temperature can drop to, and on the southern islands, such as Okinawa, it is much warmer: there the maximum temperature in summer is, and in winter it rarely drops to.
Of course, the climate of Japan is significantly different from that of Russia. A rough idea of \u200b\u200bthis is given by comparing the climate of Moscow and Tokyo (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison of the climate of Moscow and Tokyo
Spring starts early - from late February to early March. The days are becoming noticeably warmer, and most importantly - at this time, varied colors trees and shrubs are blooming.
Summer lasts from May to September. The beginning of summer is relatively short there. But this is a great time of the year: warm sunny days mixed with the rest of the freshness of spring make Japan a paradise.
Autumn comes in September, and it lasts until the end of November. Although it rains at times, the weather is generally drier and cooler. And most importantly, nature at this time changes its clothes, and the whole of Japan, as it were, puts on a kimono painted with multi-colored drawings.
In winter, from late November to February, cold and unpleasant winds blow throughout Japan. Although the average temperature is relatively high (in Tokyo it is slightly above freezing most of the time), the Japanese still do not like winter.
The population of Japan as of October 1, 2000 was 126,919 thousand people, and according to this indicator it ranks eighth in the world. This is one of the most densely populated countries: 1 sq. m there live 338 people, while in Russia - 9 people. In terms of population density, Japan ranks first in the world.
In Japan, as in many countries of the world, the demographic problem is also acute. Experts have made forecasts of the dynamics of population growth up to 2100. According to forecasts, the population of Japan by 2100 will decrease in comparison with 2000 by 59.5 million people, or almost 50%.
By average duration In life, Japan ranks first in the world: this figure is 77.1 for men and 83.99 years for women (1999).
When communicating with foreigners, you can notice a curious feature: Koreans, for example, often invite foreign guests to dinner at their home. The Japanese in a similar situation also invite guests to dinner, but not home, but to a restaurant. Why don't the Japanese like to invite foreign guests home? There are two versions on this score. First? With a sufficiently developed network of restaurants and a high level of service, the Japanese believe that there is no need to organize dinner for guests at home. The second version: as a rule, the home of the Japanese has a relatively small area, so they are reluctant to invite guests to their place, especially foreign ones.
In modern Japan, most homes are made from aluminum, wood, and concrete. Traditional Japanese rooms are heated by a kotatsu (this is a low table with a built-in electric heater, and the entire table is covered with a quilt).
As you know, rice is the basis of traditional Asian cuisine. Japan is no exception. But at the same time, you can highlight some of the characteristic features of the national cuisine of the Land of the Rising Sun.
First, the Japanese prefer to eat primarily raw foods.
Secondly, the bulk of the Japanese do not eat peppers and garlic.
Thirdly, great importance is attached to the external appearance of dishes, which are so beautifully, artistically decorated that sometimes it is simply a pity to touch them, especially to eat. No wonder they say: Japanese dishes should be eaten with the eyes.
Fourth, dishes are served in a wide range on beautiful dishes, in small portions. Popular Japanese dishes are sashimi (thinly sliced \u200b\u200bfresh raw fish), tempura (batter-fried seafood and vegetables), sushi (thinly sliced \u200b\u200braw fish or seafood with rice), udon (flat or round noodles made from wheat flour) , soba (thin pale brown buckwheat flour noodles), ramen (noodles once imported from China, served in deep soup bowls, seasoned with vegetables along with meat).
The emperor in Japan, according to the Constitution, is a symbol of the state and the unity of the nation. He has no authority to influence the actions of the government.
Japan has a democratic system of government.
The national flag of Japan is Hinomaru, which features a large red circle on a white background. The sun in the form of a red circle has been used as a state symbol since at least the 17th century. The national anthem of Japan, Kimigaya, was set to music about 100 years ago.
There is no state religion in Japan. However, two directions of religion have played a significant role in the historical development and shaping of many national traditions. This is Shinto and Buddhism.
Japan generates a small amount of energy through hydraulic, nuclear, solar and thermal power plants. However, in general, it depends on the rest of the world, that is, on the mortgage of raw materials and fuel.
Only 11% of Japan's territory is suitable for agriculture. Farms are usually small, with an average area of \u200b\u200b1.6 hectares. The mountains are mainly of volcanic origin. They cover 75% of the land. Most of the tallest mountains are located on the island of Honshu.
The flora of Japan is very rich. According to Japanese scientists, the flora of the country numbers about 5-6 thousand species. The most famous plant is sakura, which is closely related to the history, culture and religion of the Land of the Rising Sun.
2. Characteristics of the peoples of Japan
Japanese society has been characterized by a distinct class division throughout the centuries. Before World War II, there were noble families with hereditary titles and several very wealthy families who controlled large industrial syndicates. In the cities, shopkeepers and other independent entrepreneurs were influential figures, while in the countryside, landlords dominated. After World War II, all titles, with the exception of those belonging to the imperial family, were abolished. As a result of the collapse of the industrial syndicates, their former owners lost the sources of their well-being, and the agrarian reform deprived the landlords of most of their land holdings, which passed to tenants and other peasants in the form of small allotments.
A family of average incomes, as a rule, spends 23% of their income on food, 10% each on transport and recreation, 6% each on clothes and household appliances, and 7% on housing. The family budget is in the hands of the wife, who does most of the shopping and is responsible for the education of the children.
Today, young people are increasingly marrying for love. Nevertheless, parents still ask friends or co-workers to find a party for their children. In this case, photos are exchanged and a meeting of the parties is arranged. When the conspiracy has taken place, they agree on specific dates, and if everything goes well, the marriage takes place at the appointed time. Up to half of all marriages are concluded in this way.
The main religions in Japan are Shinto and Buddhism; Christianity came to the country in the middle of the 16th century, but the number of its adherents is less than 1% of the population. Shintoism, the Japanese religion itself, and Buddhism, borrowed from China, can coexist, since they affect different aspects of a person's life: Shintoism is "responsible" for the present life, and Buddhism for the other world. Most marriages are performed by Shinto priests; the funeral ceremony takes place in a Buddhist temple. On New Year's Eve, the Japanese traditionally visit holy places. On December 31, after 11 pm, thousands of people rush to them, so that the gods in the coming year will not forget them and give them health and prosperity.
The interests of the business community in Japan are defended by four organizations - "umbrellas": the largest of them is the Federation of Economic Organizations (Keidanren), the Japanese Chamber of Commerce and Industry (Nisho), the Federation of Entrepreneurial Organizations (Nikkeiren), and the Association of Economic Associates (Keizai doyukai). In addition, there are hundreds of industry associations representing firms in manufacturing, services, finance, and trade. Their leaders maintain close personal ties with officials and functionaries from the LDP.
Cooperatives that exist in every village protect the interests of the peasantry. Their nationwide organization is the rich and influential Union of Agricultural Cooperatives, with some 340,000 employees and strong electoral support for the LDP. In turn, this party is pursuing a policy so that rice producers can sell their crops to the state at guaranteed high prices and benefit from foreign trade policies that restrict the purchase of rice in the United States and other countries where its cost is much lower. As a result, the consumer in the cities of Japan buys the domestic most important food product at prices four times higher than the world prices.
After graduating from high school or college, most girls enter the labor market. Some get jobs in factories, others become secretaries, employees or salesmen. The employers know that they will all work for several years until they get married. Many women, including teachers and nurses, can look forward to continuing their work after marriage. Typically, women are paid 57% of the earnings of men for similar duties.
Some women acquire a profession, become managers in corporations, and hold high positions in public service and in politics. In 1986, the Equal Employment Opportunities Act came into force, based on the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The larger the firm, the higher the percentage of women who are promoted to the positions of heads of departments and other divisions; this pattern is especially true for retail and finance companies.
Most women quit their jobs after marriage. Some of them take jobs again as their children get older. About half of married women are currently working full-time or part-time.
For young Japanese, study often turns out to be a harsh and difficult test, since failure in admission to a prestigious school can have the most negative impact on future careers. After graduating from general secondary school, young people strive to continue their education in colleges and universities for a profession.
For students who have overcome all obstacles and entered higher education institutions, life immediately becomes easier, since Japanese universities impose minimum requirements on students whose professional development must occur while working in various industries or in the civil service. University students devote a lot of time to surfing, skiing, club activities. Clubs in Japan are of great importance, as long-term friendship and business cooperation are formed in them. The higher education system in Japan is extremely efficient in terms of training competent engineers and officials.
Every Japanese is covered by health insurance under one of three programs run by either the government or health organizations. Employees pay regular premiums up to the age of 70. Patients pay only a small part of the cost of medical services, the main costs are borne by the insurance company.
The retirement age for many is 55. At the age of 60, pensioners can receive social benefits. Companies have their own retirement benefit plans and an annual pension of less than half of their previous annual earnings. The Japanese love to work and, having received a pension, do not always go on vacation. Typically, firms relocate retirement-age employees to branch offices in lower positions or as advisors. Older women serve tea in offices and clean rooms. This practice saves money for entrepreneurs, and provides pensioners with an increase in their pension.
The Japanese are entitled to short-term unemployment payments and long-term disability payments in the amount of about 60% of wages. By law, they are entitled to five days of annual leave plus one day for each year of service.
By law, every child must complete a six-year education in primary school and a three-year education in a first-stage secondary school. Academic year in Japan starts on April 1st and ends in March. It consists of three semesters, separated by a 40-day vacation in July-August and a winter vacation at the end of December. Students attend classes on average 240 days a year, including Saturday. In 1996 in Japan, out of more than 1.5 million graduates of the first level secondary school, 99% continued their education in the second level secondary school. Because a student's future after graduation depends on his or her assessment of his or her ability to enter a prestigious second grade school and university, most students in all grades attend juku special preparatory schools several nights a week. It is believed that the future well-being and social significance of a person is largely determined by the success in the entrance exams to secondary school, college and university, and the teenager must first overcome the "hell of entrance exams" ("juken jigoku"). There are private secondary schools in which tuition is paid and there is no competitive selection of students. Some private universities, such as Nihon Daigaku, have their own primary and secondary schools.
School curricula for all levels are approved by the Ministry of Education. The authors of the textbooks are recognized authorities in their fields, but the Ministry retains and regularly uses the right to censor the textbooks.
3. Features of Japanese culture
In the Japanese archipelago, there are finds of the Mesolithic (dojomon, 10–6 thousand years BC) and neolithic (protojomon and jomon, 7 thousand, 6–1 thousand years BC) cultures. Written sources date back to the beginning of the 8th century. AD From that time on, one can quite accurately trace the history of the change of rulers (emperors) of Japan. The adoption of Chinese writing in the middle of the 1st millennium gave the Japanese access to Chinese culture.
In the middle of the 19th century, following the fall of the shogunate, efforts were made to borrow the achievements of European civilization. The Japanese ability to assimilate the best has helped them become one of the most developed nations in the world.
There are currently over 400 universities in Japan. The oldest of them - Tokyo (founded in 1877), formerly the First Imperial University, is the most authoritative higher educational institution in Japan. It is followed by universities in Kyoto (opened in 1895), Sendai (1907), Sapporo (1918).
In 1996, of the 1.555 million graduates of secondary schools of the second stage, 460 thousand went to colleges (95% of them - private) and 579 thousand - to universities with a four-year course of study. Of these, 20% were admitted to state universities, the rest to private ones. More than 90% of the students at two-year junior and five-year technical colleges are girls, and at universities 75% of students are boys. Applicants who are not admitted to a university usually prepare (either independently or with a tutor) for repeated entrance exams at the same institution.
Many traditional forms of literature and art are preserved in Japan. Poetic genres are especially popular: tanka (non-rhymed five-verse of 31 syllables) and haiku, or hokku (non-rhymed three-verse of 17 syllables). The Sunday editions of most national and local newspapers have columns of haiku or tanka poetry and ratings of the best submissions. There are also national haiku and tanka clubs, whose members meet in local chapters and compose poems for publication in club publications. There are also special government organizations that train young people in Japanese dance, noh singing, flower arranging, tea ceremony, ink painting, calligraphy and playing instruments such as the 13-string koto, the shamisen three-string upright flute, or shakuhachi.
The roots of modern Japanese literature lie in ancient culture; themes characteristic of Genji Monogatari, an 11th-century classic. Japanese writer Murasaki Shikibu, remain a leitmotif in such novels as The Personal File of Oe Kenzaburo, Nobel laureate in literature 1994. The master of moral-philosophical and grotesque-fantastic novel Abe Kobo ("Woman in the Sands", " The Burned Map "," Box Man ", etc.). The development trends of modern Japanese prose cannot be understood without taking into account the influence on it of the Western realistic novel. Many writers of the past, such as Natsume Soseki and Mori Ogai, came to literature after an in-depth study of the works of European authors; this is also true of contemporary authors, including Oe Kenzaburo and Nakamura Shinichiro, who studied French literature at the University of Tokyo.
In Japanese theater life, traditional theater genres - noo (no, nogaku), kabuki, bunraku puppet theater, or joruri - coexist with modern theater. The noo genre was formed in the 14th century. It is a musical performance with songs, dances and a dramatic plot, based on the works of classical Japanese literature. Kabuki theater, popular in Japan, emerged in the early 17th century. His repertoire includes mainly classical pieces. However, famous contemporary prose writers such as Mishima Yukio and Osaragi Jiro also wrote for noo and kabuki theaters. Among the kabuki actors - exclusively men - Bando Tomasaburo became widely known. In the 1990s, Japanese theater stars performed in sold-out kabuki performances in London, Paris, New York, Seoul, Sydney, Mexico City and Cairo.
Among the major contemporary playwrights are Inoue Hisashi, Terayama Shuji, Kara Juro. Terrayama and Kara are famous for their social satire, and Inoue's plays, including Nihonjin no heso (Japanese navel), won the audience's sympathy for their subtle humor and variety of topics. However, the most popular in last years musical performances. Gekidan Shiki's troupe broke the attendance record with musicals such as Cats and Evita. Fujita Toshio's play Before the Flood is considered one of the finest Japanese musicals.
Japan has a powerful film industry, a significant portion of which is exported to the United States and Europe. The most famous are such talented Japanese filmmakers as Akira Kurosawa (The Idiot, 1951, The Seven Samurai, 1954, Dersu Uzala, the Soviet-Japanese film 1976, The August Rhapsody, 1991, etc.), Shindo Kaneto (Naked Island, 1960, "Today to Live and Die", 1970, "Horizon", 1984, etc.). The annual repertoire in Japanese cinemas over the years has consisted of approximately equal numbers of Japanese and foreign (mainly American) films.
Japan is famous for its porcelain. The heirs of Kakiemon Sakaida, a 14th century master, whose name was continuously inherited from father to son in the family, created in the 17th century. arita style, a unique trend in porcelain production.
Japan's largest National Diet Library in Tokyo has over 5 million volumes. The University of Tokyo ranks first among other educational institutions in terms of the wealth of its book funds (over 4 million). University libraries allow access to their repositories only to professors and graduate students. For students, special rooms have been allocated, where libraries transfer literature on each academic discipline for permanent use. One of the main repositories of manuscripts and rare books is located in the Central Library of the city of Tenri (in Nara Prefecture). Its holdings number about 1.6 million and includes a collection of early editions and drafts of manuscripts by the collector Lafcadio Herne, an English-speaking journalist and one of the first Europeans to be fascinated by Japan. The Government Library contains approximately 575,000 rare and old books. There are public libraries in each of the country's 47 prefectures and in major cities. There are mobile libraries in rural areas, and even in the villages, in the meeting and meeting rooms (komikan), there are small library collections.
Mino, a suburb of Osaka, houses the State Museum of Ethnology, which has a large ethnographic and archaeological collection. The Ueno Metropolitan Park houses the Tokyo National Museum, which stands out for its rich collection of masterpieces of Japanese art and archaeological finds. The museum, which receives strong government support, contains works of art by Indian, Chinese and Korean masters. Treasures of the 6-7th centuries are kept in a specially designated building. from Hiryuji Temple (Nara Prefecture). There are also state museums in Kyoto and Nara. The basis of their collections are paintings and sculptures that belonged to nearby temples. Three interesting private collections of Japanese and Chinese art are on display in Tokyo Prefecture: the Idemitsu Gallery, which displays many paintings and calligraphy by a Zen monk and artist from the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Sengaya, and the Nezu and Goto art museums. Tokyo's Ueno Park also houses the National Museum of Contemporary Art (founded 1952), which holds more than 900 representative works of Japanese artists created after the Meiji Restoration, and the National Museum of Western Art (opened in 1959), which displays works of European and American masters.
A bookstore can be found in almost every busy place in cities. A network of second-hand bookshops has been developed. Most schools have shops that rent books and comics for a very reasonable fee.
Japanese families spend about 25% of their leisure spending on books, newspapers, magazines and other printed materials. 420 newspapers with a total circulation of approx. 72 million copies (Japan is the second country in the world after Norway in terms of newspaper supply per capita), of which five are nationwide. With the exception of one local news page, the content of each morning edition is the same for residents of both northern Hokkaido and southern Kyushu. The most popular newspaper is Yomiuri (approx. 14 million copies). It is followed by the slightly less conservative Asahi (12.7 million), Mainichi (10 million) and Sankei Shimbun (3 million). The Nihon Keizai daily newspaper, with a circulation of 2.9 million copies, specializes in domestic and international financial news.
The Japanese are passionate sports enthusiasts. Sumo wrestling is recognized as the oldest national sport; it is mentioned in the chronicle of the 7th century. Nihon Shoki. Six sumo competitions are held annually in the country, in which, within major league (maku no uchi) About 50 athletes compete for the Emperor's Cup. The wrestler who has shown the best results in 15 meetings becomes the winner. Other national sports are kendo (a type of fencing using bamboo swords), judo, and karate. Baseball came to Japan first from the West, and since 1950 there have been two professional baseball leagues, the Pacific and the Central, each with six teams. In 1996, baseball was attended by approximately 20 million people. National baseball tournaments are held every spring and summer for the higher education teams. Summer competitions were organized for the first time in 1915 and spring - in 1924. American football has also become a professional sport in Japan. The sports calendar includes annual competitions in football, rugby, field hockey and ice hockey, volleyball, basketball and handball. Teams are funded either by universities or by firms that make a significant contribution to the training of Olympic athletes. The National Sports Festival was established in 1946. Representatives from each prefecture meet for competitions in summer (swimming, yachting), autumn (27 sports, including athletics, baseball, rugby and gymnastics) and winter (skating, skiing). The Emperor's Cup goes to the prefecture, whose men have scored the most points, and the Empress's Cup is awarded to women in the same way. Competitions are held each year in turns in any of the 47 Japanese prefectures. The Ministry of Education is one of the sponsors of these competitions.
One of the main celebrated holidays in Japan is New Year... As it gets closer, people gather for parties to commemorate the previous year (bonenkai). Christmas is accompanied by the purchase of Christmas cake and toys for the children. Most businesses close on December 29 and reopen on January 4. December 31 is traditionally considered purification day (oharae), and people in most homes eat a bowl of long noodles associated with longevity. At midnight, large bells in temples ring 108 times, each of which reflects one or another mental pain experienced by people. On the first day of the year, people fill up the temples, where they throw coins and banknotes into large begging baskets, in return for the blessings of Buddhist or Shinto priests. The end of the year is an occasion for the exchange of gifts (oseibo).
The next holiday is January 15, Maturity Day, when young people in their 20s, usually dressed in kimonos, attend community events in their honor. Setsubun, although not formally a holiday, is celebrated in most families on February 3 or 4; to drive out evil spirits scatter roasted beans. February 11 - State Foundation Day. April 29, the birthday of the late Emperor Hirohito, is renamed Greenery Day and is dedicated to the spring rebirth of nature. May 3 - Constitution Day and May 5 - Children's Day. The Bon Festival, not considered an official holiday, is held for three days in July or, in some areas, in August. It is believed that the spirits of the dead return to the homes where they lived during life. This is again a chance to exchange gifts (otyugen). September 15 - Day of Honoring the Aged. September 23 - Autumn Day - is timed to coincide with the day of the autumn equinox and is the day of honoring the ancestors. October 10 is the Day of Sports and November 3 is the Day of Culture. November 23 - Thanksgiving Day to Labor, when gratitude is expressed for everything he has done; This day, formerly known as the Festival of the First Fruits, is celebrated by a ceremony conducted by the emperor himself in which the rice harvest is offered to Shinto deities. Emperor Akihito's birthday on December 23 is also a national holiday.
Conclusion
As a result of the study of the peoples and culture of Japan, interesting Facts, namely, the territory of Japan consists of many islands (there are about 7,000 of them and most of them are not large in size).
The climate of this country is diverse. There are places in the north where temperatures can drop to, and on the southern islands, such as Okinawa, it is much warmer.
The population of Japan as of October 1, 2000 was 126,919 thousand people, and according to this indicator it ranks eighth in the world. This is one of the most densely populated countries: 1 sq. m there live 338 people, while in Russia - 9 people. In terms of population density, Japan ranks first in the world.
The Japanese are one ethnic family, speaking the same language. Grammar japanese relatively simple, but complex writing, since three types of signs are used: two alphabets (katakana and hiragana) and hieroglyphs (kanji). About 2 thousand hieroglyphs are now in everyday use.
Most Japanese people perceive themselves as middle class. They are not rich, but they are not poor either. On average, Japanese families set aside 13% of their income to educate their children and provide for old age. In 1996, a family with an average income had an annual income of $ 30,000. The Japanese prefer to live in a separate single-family house with a garden, but in Tokyo it is unrealistic to acquire such a house for an average family. The average size of a home in the country is 92 sq. m, but its area differs significantly in cities and rural areas.
The main religions in Japan are Shinto and Buddhism; Christianity came to the country in the mid-16th century, but the number of its adherents is less than 1% of the population.
In the middle of the 19th century (following the fall of the shogunate), efforts were made to borrow the achievements of European civilization. The Japanese ability to assimilate the best has helped them become one of the most developed nations in the world.
List of literary sources
1. Arutyunov S.A. "Japan: people and culture" / Arutyunov S.А. - M .: Ed. Knowledge, 1991
2. Bok Zi Kou “Economy of Japan. What is she like? " / Bok Zi Kou - M .: ZAO Publishing House "Economics", 2002
3. V.M. Khachaturian "History of world civilizations" - M. 1996
4. Kuznetsov Yu.D. Novitskaya G.B., Siritsyn I.M. History of Japan: A textbook for university students studying in the specialty "History" - M .: Higher School, 1998
5. Leshchenko N. "Tokugawa Shoguns: Ieyasu" // Japan Today - 2002 - February
6. Lewis R.D. " Business cultures in international business "- M., 2001
7. Layhiff JM, Penrose JM, “Business. Communication strategies and skills "- St. Petersburg, 2001
8. "Symbol of the unity of the people" // Japan today. - 2001 - December
9. Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, M., 1987
10. Directory "Countries of the World", article "Japan", 1996
11. Land of the rising sun. History and culture of Japan. Ed. "Phoenix" Rostov-on-Don, 2006
// Moscow: Eastern Literature Publishing House, 1958.183 p.
Chapter VII.
Ethnogenesis issues.
Issues related to ethnogenesis, i.e. with the clarification of the origin of this or that people, the degree of its relationship with other peoples, the processes of its formation, which led to the formation of a people in its present appearance, are the most controversial and intractable. The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Japanese is no exception. This is evidenced by the history of the formulation, consideration and the current state of this problem. Despite the almost century-old development of a set of important issues concerning the ethnogenesis of the Japanese both in Japan itself and outside of it, they still have not received a satisfactory solution.
The reasons lie in the complexity of the science of ethnogenesis, which requires coordinated and combined interaction of some related sciences (archeology, anthropology, linguistics, etc.) for its successful development, based on clear methodological guidelines. The Japanese historical science is characterized by an insufficient connection between related branches of science and an extreme weakness of methodology, which is expressed primarily in the almost complete absence of a wide coverage of historical events, combined with a deep and consistently materialistic understanding of them. All these reasons significantly delayed the development of the science of ethnogenesis. Especially detrimental was the subordination in some cases of the interests of the science of the origin of the Japanese people to the interests of reactionary-political propaganda, saturated with various fascist theories about the exclusivity of the Japanese race and the leading role of the Japanese racial element in the formation of the peoples of the Far East and their cultures, as well as the outdated canons of the official Japanese historical sciences like the "theory" about Jimmu ("about the divinity of the origin of the state, the emperor and the entire Japanese people"). The influence of Japanese reactionary ideology, which had a particularly strong effect on ethnogenetic theories, deepened the crisis in this field of science.
Most of the controversy was caused by the questions of the attitude of modern Japanese to the Neolithic population of the archipelago (carriers of the Jomon culture). Since olden times, since the discovery of the Stone Age monuments, it has become clear that the way of life of the ancient population of Japan was not the same as in later times. From here it was not far from a guess that people themselves were different from modern Japanese. This guess later, with the discovery of the Neolithic skeletons, turned into confidence. The search for the roots of the origin of the Japanese people was carried out in various ways: they brought together separate languages, analyzed ancient myths, and looked for ethnographic analogies. Some scientists, led by the largest scientist of medieval Japan, Motoori Norinaga (18th century), defended the theory of the "heavenly" origin of the Japanese, which until recently was orthodox; others, like Fujii Teikan (XVIII century) or Hayashi Ryuka (XVII century), indicated: one - on common origin Japanese and Koreans, the other - to South China, as a possible ancestral home of the Japanese. These were, perhaps, the most important achievements of Japanese feudal science in the development of the question of the origin of the Japanese. Their views rested on a more scientific basis than the "theories" of the vulgar migrationists of the 19th and 20th centuries, who led the Japanese out of Babylon (Kempfer), from Judea (Oyabe), from Greece (Kimura) (Nishioka and Schenck, 1937).
The question of the origin of the Japanese and their connection with the most ancient inhabitants of the islands arose most acutely in bourgeois Japan. Already at the end of the XIX century. two points of view on this issue took shape: according to the first, the Neolithic population of Japan was recognized as the Korobokkuru tribe, according to the second - the Ainu.
Morse, who unearthed Japan's first shell heap in 1878, found clear traces of cannibalism. And since, in his opinion, neither the Ainu, nor the Japanese were ever cannibals, he considered the Neolithic population of Japan to be a certain tribe, not related to either the Ainu or the Japanese. This point of view was developed by Tsuboi, who argued that such a population was the dwarf tribe Korobokkuru ("people living under the leaves of butterbur"), which is mentioned in Ainu legends. The Tsuboi school found signs in these legends that made it possible to bring the korobokkura closer to the Eskimos (Tsuboi, 1902). However, the korobokkuru theory (but by no means the Eskimo theory) soon lost its supporters due to its very weak scientific foundation. It was replaced by the Ainu theory, which appeared simultaneously with the korobokkuru theory.
The founder of the Ainu theory was Koganei, who, on the basis of measuring the Neolithic skeletons and skeletons of the modern Ainu, concluded that they were significantly similar. Developing his thought, he came to the conclusion that it was the ancestors of the Ainu who inhabited all of Japan in the Stone Age. He found confirmation of this position in the Ainu legends, which reported on the former power of the Ainu, who lived in dugouts throughout Japan and used pottery (Koganei, 1903). The Ainu theory of the origin of the Japanese was significantly more supported by scientific facts and therefore found many supporters. Her achievements were summarized in his work by Munro, who spoke of the existence of a close relationship between the people of the Stone Age of Japan and the modern Ainu (Munro, 1911, p. 671-673; Anuchin, 1904). Some scholars have tried to link the conclusions reached by the supporters of the Ainu theory with the data of ancient Japanese written sources, place names, with Ainu legends and folklore, as well as with the main provisions of the korobokkuru theory. Bachelor stated that the Ainu and Korobokkuru are one and the same tribe, Yokhelson expressed the belief that Korobokkuru are the ancestors of the Ainu. Takahashi identified the Ainu with the ebisu and tsuchigumo, the peoples mentioned in the Japanese annals.
Along with the theory of the Ainu origin of the Japanese, there were other theories linking the origin of the Japanese with the Malay-Mongolian race (Ranke), with a special Asian race (Shrenk), with the Indo-Europeans (Anuchin), with the Manchus (Schmidt, Radlov, Shirokogorov), with the fish (Middendorf , Belts), with the Jews (Mac-Led), with the Mongols (Chamberlain), with the North American Indians (Brand), with the Huns (Taguti), with the Malays (Doenitz, Horioka) and others (Nishioka and Schenck, 1937; Roshchinin 1929 ; Bogaevsky, 1932).
However, the Ainu theory has reached a dead end. On the one hand, the recognition of the Ainu as the only Neolithic inhabitants of the islands and the ancestors of the Japanese was only a partial resolution of the issue, since the past of the Ainu themselves - their origin, place among other peoples of the world, their ancestral home - remained completely incomprehensible. On the other hand, a more thorough anthropological study of the Neolithic skeletons and skeletons of the modern Ainu and Japanese destroyed the established position of direct continuity between the modern Ainu and the population of Japan in the Stone Age, although the existence of some features common to the Ainu and Neolithic man of Japan was recognized. It became obvious that the question of the origin of the Japanese could not be reduced to the establishment of certain similarities with other peoples, and that the population of the Stone Age of Japan was racially different from all existing peoples, and the Japanese nationality was formed as a result of the interaction of several racial groups. The Ainu theory of the origin of the Japanese ceased to exist and grew into the Ainu problem - the problem of the origin of the Ainu, which has not yet been resolved (Sternberg, 1929).
When the inconsistency of the Ainu theory became clear, several new hypotheses arose about the origin of the Japanese. Torii suggested the existence of two cultural areas in ancient Japan: the Neolithic Ainu in the north and the Eneolithic in the south. The racial composition of the Eneolithic area is complex: these are settlers from Korea with a Chinese culture, the peoples of Indochina and Indonesia (Torii, 1917; 1925).
The old theories of Belts and others revived. At the same time, attempts were made to restore the Ainu theory in an updated form.
We are referring to Matsumoto's Panain theory. He believed that three large racial groups: Caucasoids, Australoids and Ainu are not
when they inhabited Asia. Subsequently, as a result of pressure from the Mongols, the Caucasians fled to the west, and the Ainu to the east, in particular to Japan. These Ainu were the Neolithic inhabitants of Japan (Jomon culture). Based on the study of bone material, Matsumoto identified four paleoanthropological types among the ancient population of Japan: Aoshima, Miyato, Tsukumo, Okayama. The first three types are named after the shell mounds, where they were first recorded. The Aoshima type is characterized by relatively high growth (158-163 cm), dolicho- or mesocephalous and underdeveloped chin protrusion. It is very close to the modern Ainu from the Kuril Islands or Sakhalin. The Miyato type is short (152 cm), it was distributed throughout Japan at the end of the Neolithic. In northeastern Japan, it mixed with the Aoshima type, and to this day, the Ainu from Hokkaido bear traces of mixing these two types. The Tsukumo type is very tall (about 170 cm), with a tendency to brachiocephaly and with a strongly developed chin protrusion. This type appeared in the late Neolithic (Horinouchi), but it does not exist in northeastern Japan. The confusion of this type with the Miyato type is also manifested in the modern Japanese of the "Mongoloid" type. The Okayama type appeared at the beginning of the Iron Age. These four types of the ancient population, along with the modern Ainu, represented the "Panain" Matsumoto (Matsumoto, 1921).
The Okayama type deserves special attention: it is included both among the four paleoanthropological types and among the modern anthropological types of Japan (Ichikawa, Chikuzen, Satsuma, Okayama). The Ichikawa type, represented by individuals with a short body and medium head, is characteristic of northeastern Japan; the Chikuzen type, with a longer torso and a longer head, is represented in the south of Kyushu; the Satsuma type, with a short body and a long head, found in Shikoku and southern Kyushu; Mongoloid type Okayama - in the southwest of Honshu. Comprehensive anthropological studies of paleoanthropological remains and skeletons of the modern population have shown an approximate correspondence between the geographically closest paleoanthropological and anthropological types (Hulse, 1943).
Four paleoanthropological types of the ancient population of the islands are generally recognized by the majority of modern scientists, but each scientist invests his own specific content in these abstract types. Matsumoto's Panain theory, first put forward in 1919, is overly schematic. Subsequent studies, and especially a massive anthropometric survey of the Ainu of Hokkaido and Sakhalin, the Oroch and Gilyak of Sakhalin, the Koreans and the Japanese partly confirmed the conclusions of the supporters of the Ainu theory regarding the presence of connections of the Ainu with the Neolithic population of the islands, but they refuted the opinion that the earliest population of the islands consisted of one "Purebred" Ainu. It was found that the modern Japanese living in the mountains are closer to the modern Ainu than the ancient population of Japan, and this Neolithic population itself does not show a very close relationship with the Tungus tribes, that both Neolithic people and modern Japanese in some areas show a greater affinity to modern Ainam.
The opposite point of view about the origin of the Japanese is held by Kiyono. A major anthropologist who personally participated in the excavation and study of the most important burials, Kiyono is an ardent supporter of the so-called theory of the "Japanese Neolithic". He argues that the Neolithic population of Japan is Pro-Japanese, who differ from modern Japanese only in the absence of Korean blood (Kiyono, 1949). However, many authors rightly point to the arbitrariness of the dating of some of the skeletons and the lack of uniform comparable data for all the skeletons studied by Kiyono. The data given by Kiyono do not allow us to agree with the theses put forward by him about the sharp difference between the anthropological types of the Japanese and their neighbors on the mainland, about the complete lack of connection with the Ainu type, and about the especially strong influence of the Korean type (Imamura and Ikeda, 1949).
The presence of numerous and contradictory theories about the origin of the Japanese and about the nature of the ancient population based on incomplete and often tendentious material presented, as well as the absence of materialistic methodology among bourgeois archaeologists, led to the emergence of eclectic theories, of which we will note one.
In his recently published monograph, Groot admits that the population of the Japanese Isles varied in ethnicity at different times. The first inhabitants, in his opinion, belonged to three ethnic groups, which, being at the Mesolithic level of development, were ousted from the mainland to the islands of the Pacific Ocean by carriers of a higher, Neolithic culture. Two of
of these groups of southern, Indo-Chinese origin - carriers of the Baxon and Hoabin cultures - arrived in Japan from the south, and the third, Mongol-Siberian group, from the north. At the beginning of the early Jomon, a new group of Siberian settlers arrived in Japan, which, according to Groot, consisted of the tribes of the north of Siberia (bone industry of the "Shigir" type). The tribes of southern Siberia (flat-bottomed "Angara" type pottery with large handles) shaped the Middle Jomon culture. And, finally, a new wave of Sino-Korean settlers reached Japan at the end of the Neolithic (the final jomon) (Groot, 1951, pp. 25-31, 40-42, 54-56, 79-82).
The desire to explain every change in culture, or even simply in the form of tools or in ceramics, the emergence of new ethnic groups, and the nature of these groups and their racial affiliation to determine on the basis of random similarities between individual groups of objects taken in isolation, while ignoring what does not fit into scheme, the complete absence of attempts to critically draw on more extensive material to substantiate their far-reaching conclusions - these are the characteristic features of Groot's ethnogenetic scheme and many similar constructions.
It is impossible, and indeed unnecessary, to list all theories concerning the definition of the race of the population of Japan during the Stone Age and early metal and the origin of the Japanese. Most of them are related to one of the above theories. Of the many theories, modern Japanese historical science recognizes only a few, one of which has a fairly wide circulation in scientific circles. This is Matsumoto's Panain theory with some additions.
Officials have a preference for two other theories. One of them is the Belts hypothesis, put forward by him at the beginning of the 20th century. Belts believed that the Ainu, Manchus, Koreans, Mongols and Malays participated in the formation of the Japanese people. Another theory found its expression in the pages of World History (Sekai Rekishi Taikei, XII), which says: “Basically Ainu, Tungus, Indonesians, Negritos, Indochines, and in the end, the Korean and Chinese tribes, mixing in different proportions, spread across the islands and as a result of contact, conquest, mixing of blood, assimilation, finally created a single people known as the Japanese. "
There are indications that the Ainu appeared on the islands earlier than other tribes. Moving from Western Asia eastward through Siberia, they settled on the Japanese islands three to four thousand years ago. A little later, one might think, the tribes that are called Tungus, for quite a long time, gradually migrated across the sea either through the Tatar Strait, or through the Korean Peninsula, or from some other point on the coast. The Ainu, the original inhabitants, were pushed back to the north, which confirms the spread of finds of Jomon-type and yayoi-type pottery. Scientists believe that the migration of the "Tungus" tribes, no matter how many times it happened, was concentrated in the Izumo region and that the tribes that, judging by the Kojiki and Nihongi, suddenly moved to Kyushu, may have been Tenson tribes.
In any case, the tribes called "Tunguska" can be considered Pro-Japanese. It was these tribes that brought the yayoi-type agriculture and culture, while the Ainu - these original inhabitants of Stone Age Japan - left the Jomon-type culture. On the one hand, the indigenous Indo-Chinese tribes, which were under pressure in ancient China from the growing Chinese tribes, were pushed southward. One might think that they, already familiar with agriculture (these tribes probably brought rice culture with them) and bronze culture, moved to Kyushu. Scientists believe that they may have formed the so-called Yamatai state, which is mentioned in the Woren section of Weizhi. There is a hypothesis that the Indo-Chinese tribes used bronze bells. On the other hand, it is possible that Indonesians from the southern regions migrated to Satsuma. And the Kumaso, and Hayato, and other tribes that existed before the Heian era, did not belong to them? Further, was not the migration of Negroids from the south quite powerful? From the II-I centuries. BC e. the migration of Chinese tribes began, which continued in the historical era. It flourished especially around the 5th century. n. e. (Nishioka, 1936, pp. 111, 112).
Despite the fact that many important questions of the ethnogenesis of the Japanese have not yet been developed, we can, in the most general terms, recreate the picture of the settlement of Japan and the formation of the Japanese people, using the archaeological and anthropological material available to us, published abroad, and the work of Soviet scientists on the ethnogenesis of the Far East (Okladnikov, 1946, 1954; Cheboksarov, 1947, 1949; Levin and Cheboksarov, 1951).
The bulk of the original population of the islands arrived in Japan from the south. This is evidenced by the entire complex of archaeological finds (chopper-like tools, axes made of chopped pebbles, etc.). The complete absence of skeletons dating back to this time does not allow us to determine the ethnicity of these settlers, or rather, its very likely Ainoid character. But it is possible that, along with the Ainoids, other southern ethnic groups, such as the Indo-Chinese, arrived in Japan at this time, but there is no convincing evidence of this. The rather distinct difference in the character and form of Early Neolithic implements and ceramics from Northern and Central Japan involuntarily raises the assumption whether some northern tribes, which, like the southern ones, were at the "Mesolithic" stage of development, penetrated simultaneously with the southern ethnic elements?
The earliest paleoanthropological type of Japan, established on the basis of finds of human bone remains, belongs to the period of the early Jomon, the Aoshima type, which reveals clearly southern features that allow it to be associated with the ancestors of modern Ainu. However, the time and conditions for the appearance of this type remain unclear. Perhaps we are dealing here with the emergence of new anthropological types from the outside - the Ainoids, and perhaps it was formed on the spot on the basis of previously arrived ethnic groups or even fully corresponded to one of them. Archaeological materials do not confirm a sharp change in the cultural and, therefore, racial composition of the population.
In the late Neolithic, i.e. In the Late Jomon, the eastern Mongoloids, who arrived on the islands from the west, penetrated into Japan, and at the end of the Jomon (at the end of the Neolithic), the southern Mongoloids who arrived from the south. Eastern Mongoloids are represented in Japan by the Miyato paleoanthropological type, and the southern Mongoloids by the Tsukumo type. Mongoloids made polished four-sided axes and knew how to mine and process metal. The resettlement of the eastern Mongoloids, who took an active part in the creation of the so-called yayoi culture, was especially significant for the creation of the physical type and cultural appearance of the population of ancient Japan.
Already at the beginning of the early Iron Age, a new wave of immigrants of Sino-Korean origin (Okayama type) appeared.
This is a schematic and largely still unclear picture of the settlement of the archipelago. When assessing the role of this or that migration in creating the cultural and anthropological appearance of the population as a whole or at a certain stage in the ancient history of Japan, the following should be remembered. Both archaeological and anthropological evidence indicate that the development of the material culture of the inhabitants of the islands and the process of the formation of their anthropological racial type were slow and gradual. The migration to the islands apparently took place in small waves, and was also slow and rather constant. That is why it is especially difficult to determine the racial character of this or that group of immigrants. The specificity in the culture was outlined early, so that even relatively large groups of immigrants quickly assimilated. The largest and most important factor that influenced the formation of the modern, very complex anthropological type of the Japanese was, of course, the resettlement of the Mongoloids.
As you know, of the 12 Jewish tribes designated in the Bible, today only two openly declare their Jewish origin - the Jews and the Israelites. Ten knees are considered lost. Many researchers are trying to shed light on this issue. In particular, M. Bass writes that in the 3rd century A.D. Yuzuki-O (in Japanese "O" - "king") arrived in Japan, accompanied by 3600 soldiers. According to [ Bass, 2008], they were Jews, since in Japanese yuzu means “Jew”. Under Emperor Yurnaku, a new group of "yuzu" arrived in Japan, which called themselves "Izrai". The ancient legend of the Izrai tribe tells about their leader Kava-Katsu, who was saved from the water as a baby, then was brought up in the royal palace, became the chief and certainly freed his Izrai people from captivity (a complete analogy to the legend of the Jewish Moses). Near Kyoto, there is the village of Uzumasa and a temple named Uzumasa-Deri (Deri in Japanese means David). In this temple in September each year, the "Feast of the Lamb" is held, on which all the sins of the people are laid.
In 1934, the Harbin newspaper "Jewish Life" on February 21 published an article about the book of the Japanese bishop Dzudi Nakada. In it, Nakada says that the Japanese are of Semitic origin. According to the bishop, the Semites include not only Jews and Arabs, but also yellow ones - Japanese, Chinese, etc.
This point of view is shared by the Israeli researcher Yosef Eidslberg, who is looking for the "disappeared" ten tribes of Israel. First of all, he points to the fact that the Japanese themselves do not know where and when they came to the islands. And in "Nihongi" - the annals of the Japanese people from the creation of the world to the end of the 7th century AD. there are many coincidences with the history of the Jewish people from the time of the Exodus from Egypt to the split of the Israelite-Judean kingdom into two states. The Jewish king Shaul is called Shui in the Nihongi. It is said about Shuya that he was of immense height and died in battle from an arrow that hit his heart. The same is said about Shaul in Jewish sources. According to Nihongi, Shui is buried in an area called Anato ... And according to the Bible, Shaul is buried in a place called Anatot.
In the Japanese temple there is the Holy of Holies called "hundan" - the Palace of the Book, but the Japanese do not know which book. During the service, the chief Japanese priest wears a white robe with tsui tassels at the ends of the sleeves, reminiscent of the Jewish tzitzit brushes at the ends of the prayer cover of the Jews. Many words in Hebrew and Japanese have coincided. For example, "error" is Heb. "Mishge, jap. "Mishigi"; "Meeting" - Heb. "Knesset", jap. Knessey; "Mountain" - Heb. "Har", jap. "Haro"; "Difficulty" - Jap. "Koshu", Heb. "Koshi". In addition, there is another parallel: the Japanese celebrate the Black Day holiday every year on the fifteenth of the eighth month. The Japanese historical chronicles did not record the meaning of this date. Yosef Eidelberg offers the following explanation: on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, Jeroboam, the son of Nabat, proclaimed the creation of the kingdom of Israel [ Gelman, 1997].
Opponents reply to Jewish researchers that the Japanese word for "mistake" is MATIGAI, KANTIGAI, OMOITIGAI, CHIGAI, AYAMARI ... The word "mishigi" does not exist in Japanese at all. "Mountain" in Japanese - YAMA, and HARO - from Chineseor NAMI - "waves" or "wave". Collection in Japanese - KAIGI, MANKAI, XU: KAI. Difficulty in Japanese is CONNAN. These are all Chineseisms.
On August 15, the Japanese celebrate not the "Black Day", but the ceremony of honoring the ancestors -, jap. Urabon, he is Bon, or O-bon. This is a day of remembrance of the dead and gratitude to living parents. It is associated with visiting ancestral graves. The instruction on the Urabon rite is contained in the Ullamban Sutra, jap. "Bussetsu urabon-kyo:" whale. "Foho Ulanpen-jing". The first chronicle message about its reading in all temples of Japan refers to 659. The Urabon rite itself was first performed even earlier - in 606 (or even in 552) [ Nihon, 1997, pp. 99, 183].
According to the Buddha's teachings, the fate of the deceased is determined by the law of retribution: happiness comes for good deeds, and sorrow for bad deeds. There are six possible ways of rebirth in total. Three bad ways are “underground dungeons” (Buddhist “hell”), the worlds of “hungry ghosts” and “cattle” (animals), and three good ones are the ways “ asura "(Demons), celestials ( gods ) and of people ... The Sanskrit word "ullambana" in the title of the sutra is not entirely understandable. Some interpret it as "hanging upside down", "dependence", "torment", meaning the suffering of people who, after death, were reborn in the world of "hungry ghosts", jap. gaki, Skt. preta.
In ancient Indian sources, preta are the spirits of the dead who remain in the earthly world for some time after death. In relation to them, a ritual is described in the Rig Veda (Skt. Pitara) [ Rig Veda, pp. 129 - 134, hymns X - 14 - X - 16], as well as a similar ritual in the ancient Iranian tradition [ Fravardin-Yasht]. In India, the Buddhist community has adopted a ritual associated with preta. But there are opinions that the name of the sutra does not go back to the Sanskrit ullambana, but to the Pali ullumpana - "help", "salvation". Since the Sanskrit original of the Chinese Ullamban Sutra is unknown, it is possible to assume that in China the word- "ulanpen" was transferred to the Pali term, not the Sanskrit [Ashikaga, 1951, p. 71 – 75 ].
According to the Japanese connoisseur of rituals Murase Yukihiro (1748 - 1818), the combination of three hieroglyphs, which is usually considered to be a recording of a foreign language word, is actually the Chinese name for a bamboo basket for offering food to spirits on the day of Zhong-yuan, yap. Chu: gen. This holiday falls on the fourteenth day of the seventh month according to the lunar calendar, it combines the features of the ancient Chinese sacrifice to the ancestors and the Buddhist rite associated with "hungry ghosts." Most likely, in Japan in the 7th century the mainland way of worshiping ancestors was adopted, which was no longer only Buddhist or "purely Chinese" in its content.
The Japanese have a legend that the sky sent people bread (motsy) in the form of rain, but for sins this gift stopped, which resembles the fall of manna in the desert. Japan has long been known as the country of "Mizuho" or "sunrise", which is identical to the Jewish "mizraho" - "rise, rebirth". Making "emogi-motsi" (dough made from glutinous rice and wild cabbage leaves) is reminiscent of the Jewish custom of eating unleavened bread (matzo) with bitter herbs. The Japanese usually bring their newborn babies to the temple, and so did the Jews. Japanese people, like Jews, wash their hands before praying. Japanese kimonos are reminiscent of Jewish long clothes. The tombs of the Japanese are reminiscent of the tombs of the ancient Jews. They knock out a hole in the rock where they put the deceased, then brick it up and paint it in white color... The Japanese, like the ancient Jews once, slaughter the calf and smear the doorposts of their doors with blood.
The Japanese bishop Dauji Nakada, in his recent book, claims that the Japanese are of Semitic origin, as are the Chinese, Mongols, Malays, Manchus, and American Indians. He says that the Japanese people were once called Sumers (Sumerians), which in translation from Japanese means "respectable", "noble". In addition, the Bible also mentions another people - the Hittites (Gen. 10:16), who are considered the successors of the Sumeri race. In particular, Abraham bought land from them for the burial of his wife Sarah (Genesis 23). The Hittites called their temple "Comano". Now in Japan, two ancient temples "Kumano" (while "u" and "o" sound the same in Japanese) in Ketu and Izumo. There are ancient idols in these temples. Dr. Size finds great similarities in appearance and physical structure between the Hittites and the Japanese.
Recall that the Hittites were not Semites, but Indo-Europeans. And the Hittite language belongs to the Indo-European family. The Japanese, as we said above, were formed from a mixture of Indo-European Ainu and paleoanthropic Chinese and Japanese. The Japanese bishop associates the latter with the children of Shem, that is, with the Semites. And Jewish scholars, developing the ideas of the Japanese bishop, note with pleasure that he "talks about an anthropological connection, then he mentions a historical connection, proving that Israel's blood flows in the veins of Japan."
The bishop recalls the rich Jewish banker - American Shif, who, along with other Jewish bankers, covered the financial needs of Japan during the war with Russia, when Minister Hakahashi asked him for a government loan. Note that Einstein, while in Japan, said that Japan will be the governing nation in the near future. And, explaining the essence of the Apocalypse, the bishop claims that the liberator will come from the land of the rising sun, and his first mission will be to intercede for the Jews, the other - to destroy the children of Antichrist: battles will take place in Palestine, in Armageddon, and all nations will take part in them; the people from the East will play a decisive role (Isa. 46:11; 41: 1-7).
Nakada, referring to the interpretation of the Bible, argues that the mission of the Japanese people should be to protect the Jewish people. And he also cites a chapter from the Holy Scriptures: “Thus says the Lord of hosts: here I will save my people from the land of the East and from the land of the setting of the Sun and I will bring them, and they will live in Jerusalem, and will be my people, and I will be their God in truth and righteousness ”(Zech. 8: 7-8). On this basis, the bishop claims that Jews from Japan will rush to Palestine.
This approach of the Jews to the Japanese question can be viewed in different ways. It can be noted that on the maps China is designated - "Cinae", that is, Sinai. Recall that on Mount Sinai, the Hebrew Moses received the tablets from the ancient Russian Perun. In addition, the Chinese language, the basis of Japanese, belongs to the Sino-Caucasian family of languages, which demonstrates its connection with the present-day region of Jewish settlement and with their languages. But there are several circumstances that need to be cited to support their version. Firstly, the Japanese, the Mongoloid part of them, do not come from neoanthropes - a modern human species (homo sapience sapience), but from paleoanthropes - a homo sapience species (in Europe - Neanderthals). Secondly, this species - paleoanthropes - on Earth really has 12 genetic lines on the Y chromosome (while the Indo-Europeans have 3 other lines).
Thirdly, if we talk about the biblical Apocalypse, then we need to clarify. The apocalypse is next. As it is written in the Bible, at the end of the Christian era, Christians will occupy the entire Earth, as a result of their rule, mankind will be mired in debauchery, perversion and corruption. The Antichrist will rise up against Christ (Greek "Gold") and will try to bring order to the Earth. But the returned Christ will put the 144,000 Jews on their foreheads with a seal protecting them, and destroy the rest of humanity. The earth will be knee-deep in blood. Before her death, the Jewess Vanga spoke about such an end of the world. She, in particular, said that India would subject Russia to a nuclear attack, after which the remaining Russians would be destroyed with chemical weapons. And after that, according to Vanga, an era of beautiful life has come on Earth - in which only Mongoloids will remain.
Let's remind, "Ain" is translated as "noble man", perhaps, in ancient times, this was the designation for the king or the first, highest person in a community or state. So, in particular, in the German language, whose share is largely occupied by the Türkisms and Semitisms of Central Asian origin, there is a word consonant both in pronunciation and in meaning - the numeral ein (eine, ein), einer, eins (when counting) - “one ". It. aio means "educator, mentor", the same meaning has lat. ain "and aisne, as well as Aius -" speaking broadcaster "(a mysterious voice, according to legend, in 390 BC warned the Romans about the attack of the Gauls). But" ain "in Gematria is also translated as" eye ", cf. eye - English eye, German Auge, French il, Spanish ojo.
In this regard, we note one more aspect. It is believed that the Semites - Arabs were formed in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, and, moreover, their first state was formed, allegedly, already in the 4th century. These are false "historical" data, because, firstly, in that Arabia, which we now know under this name, there are no rivers, and the development of a large people is impossible. And, secondly, the Arabs appeared only after the arrival of the Prophet Muhammad (7th century). Thirdly, anthropological and linguistic data establish the homeland of Jews and Arabs (they differ: Jews went from a Jewess, and Arabs from a non-Jewess) regions of South India and, possibly, Southeast Asia.
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The founder of the Danishmendid dynasty (1071 - 1174, Sivas, Turkey) Ahmad, nicknamed Danishmend Gazi, was a Turkic by origin. His father Ali ibn Murab was one of the noble Turkmen beks of Khorezm. In the middle of the 11th century, together with many compatriots, he moved to the west and chose some of the regions of Azerbaijan as a place of his nomads. Ahmad's mother was Arab, the daughter of a local emir. Ahmad created the Sivas Emirate, which reached the peak of its power under the son of the founder of the dynasty, Malik Gazi. In 1100 Malik managed to defeat and capture one of the leaders of the first crusade - Bohemond of Antioch. Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus twice, in 1132 and 1139. (after the death of Malik Gazi), made campaigns against the Danishmendids, but both of them ended in defeats. The youngest son of Malik Gazi was Ain ad-din - the emir of the state with the center in Malatya.
In the places where the Turkestan-Siberian railway passes, which connected Central Asia with Siberia, the town of Aina-Bulak in Kazakhstan is known. In 1913, the magazine "Aina" (Mirror) was published in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Baghdad railway reached the village of Ras al-Ain in the north. At Ain Jalut, west of the Jordan, on September 3, 1260, a historic battle took place between the Egyptians and the Mongols. Ain Ubag in Arabia is a city on the northern border of the tribe of Judah, the Islamic university in Cairo is called Ain Shams. Ain Karim is the birthplace of John the Baptist. Ain-Um-Ed-Jeraj is the source of the Arabs. The village of Ain-Zala (Iraq), the village of Ain-Kafa, the source of Ain-Eskali in the Wadi-Skal valley. In 6 versts to the north-west of Jericho there is the source of Ain-Duk, and next to it is a fortress, which, according to Flavius's testimony, was called Dagon. Another source, Ain Sitti Mariam, is located at the foot of the West Hill of the Kidron Valley. The town of al-Ain is located in the al-Buraimi oasis.
Japan is the youngest of the Eastern civilizations. It is located on an archipelago of 4 large islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. In addition, more than 3 thousand islands belong to Japan. The current population of Japan is approximately 12 million, of whom 99% are ethnic Japanese. The Japanese ethnos took shape as a result of prolonged migration processes associated with the movement of ethnic groups from Siberia, Korea and the Pacific Islands. The core of nationalities was formed by the beginning of our time in the 3-6 centuries, when the first state of Yamato was formed in the center of the island of Honshu.
Japan's insular position saved it from military conquests and created conditions for the country's cultural isolation. The proximity to the east coast of Asia predetermined the influence of China and Korea on the formation of Japanese culture.
The most ancient tribes inhabiting the Japanese islands were engaged in hunting, fishing, forest coastal gathering. They worshiped the Sun, the culture of which is evidenced by altars in the form of rings made of stones with a vertical stone towering in the center. The largest structure of this kind was excavated in the town of Oyu. The outer ring has a diameter of 46.5 meters and the inner ring is 14.57 meters. Found small clay figurines depicting a female deity. Preserved ceramics, made without a potter's wheel and covered with a "rope knot" (Jomon style). The dimensions of some products are up to a meter. Lush, fantastic forms of vessels demonstrate the indomitable power of magic.
The culture of bronze originated in Japan at the beginning of our era under the influence of immigrants from Korea. The Japanese learned how to cast bronze bells, make swords and other weapons. At the end of the 3rd century, a massive emigration of the Chinese began, who brought iron technology to Japan.
"Living life" moved from the capital with the emperor (the rulers of Yamato eventually assumed the title of tenno - emperor) and his regents in the province. Seen owners, fearing each other, and to protect their possessions, created detachments of warriors from their peasants, small landowners or fugitives. So, in Japan there was a class of professional samurai warriors, vassals of powerful houses and the emperor.
Samurai differed from other variants of the service class in the East in that it was not in the service of the state, but of noble houses, for which it initially received fiefs (from the 14th century it gradually switched to natural rations). Samurai. The pinnacle of self-improvement and development of the human spirit. An organic compound of the eternal confrontation between creation and destruction. The ideal "death" machine or the brutal, aggressive, ignorant killer? No people are alike and no people are perfect. Each of us is created by time and place. Centuries of natural and social cataclysms in small island Japan cut off from the whole world have created a special psychological type resistant to extreme situations.
Most characteristic representative of this type was the military, and later the state elite of the Land of the Rising Sun - the samurai class, which lived according to certain rules called the "Samurai Code": "A samurai must, first of all, constantly remember - remember day and night, from that morning when he takes in the hands of chopsticks to partake of the New Year's meal, until the last night of the old year, when he pays his debts - that he must die. This is his main business. If he always remembers this, he will be able to live life in accordance with loyalty and filial piety, avoid myriad evils and misfortunes, protect himself from illness and misfortune, and enjoy a long life. He will be an exceptional person with excellent qualities. For life is fleeting, like a drop of evening dew and morning frost, and even more so is the life of a warrior. And if he thinks that he can console himself with the thought of eternal service to his master or of endless devotion to relatives, something will happen that will make him neglect his duty to his master and forget about loyalty to his family. But if he lives only for today and does not think about tomorrow, so that, standing in front of the master and waiting for his orders, he thinks of it as his last moment, and looking into the faces of his relatives, he feels that he will never see them again. Then his feelings of duty and admiration will be sincere, and his heart will be filled with loyalty and filial piety. "
Geisha is given special attention in the culture of Japan. There are two versions of the appearance of geisha in Japan. The adherents of the first version believe that the progenitors of geisha were two enterprising persons who in the eleventh century decided to earn money and fame with an unusual performance for sacred warriors. Dressed in the ceremonial clothes of their spectators - white long dresses, high hats, and, attaching swords to their belt, they started dancing ...
The guests were so stunned that, after a few days, the young ladies became the most striking characters at all the invited receptions. Over the years, white clothes have diversified a little - skirts turned red and swords went out of fashion.
The second version says that initially only representatives of the stronger sex were allowed into the geisha, and they were not entertained by the high society. Geisha men were part of the so-called "water world", which, in fact, was an analogue of the Parisian "court of miracles". Gradually, men were not destined, since the audience was more impressed by the smooth dances of snow-white moths performed by women. As soon as this gender revolution took place, geisha immediately acquired a more than decent reputation - they began to invite beauties to tea ceremonies. The areas in which the geisha communities were located were called "flower streets" (hanamati). The geisha of "mother" - Oka-san were in charge. Geisha apprentices were called maiko. The transition from maiko to geisha was usually accompanied by a loss of virginity, which was sold to the most significant hanamachi customers for huge sums of money. The more a man paid to "pluck the flower of innocence," the higher the chances of a maiko becoming a popular and highly paid geisha. The popularity and beauty of a geisha began to be measured by the status of the teahouse inviting her.
Despite the fact that geisha were an elite of sensual pleasures, they were by no means prostitutes. It is important that since the advent of the profession of geisha, they were legally prohibited from providing sexual services for money. The golden age of geisha lasted from the 60s of the XIX to the beginning of the XX century. It was during this period that a complex and sophisticated system of geisha education was developed, which included literature, painting, music and the art of being irresistible - Kokono-tokoro (nine beauty recipes), which allowed women - flowers to look perfect.
Foreign scientists identify the main stages in the development of culture:
culture of the ancient centuries up to the 6th century ad;
Buddhist culture from the 6th century until the end of the 8th century;
the formation of national culture from the 8th to 12th centuries;
the development of culture in the Middle Ages in the 13-15th centuries;
culture of the pre-modern era of the 15-17 centuries.
the stage of modernization of cultural life in the 19-20 centuries.
Thus, the civilization and culture of Japan before the global clash of Western and Eastern civilizations had many striking unique features, some of them survived in modern times... One of the significant is the absence of a chronologically clear transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages associated with the formation of feudalism as a socio-economic and political structure.
The era of the 16th - early 17th century was the dawn of Japanese architecture and the art of the Japanese garden.
This is a specific ritualized form of joint tea drinking, created in the Middle Ages in Japan and is still cultivated in this country. Originally appearing as one of the forms of meditation practice by Buddhist monks, it has become an integral part of Japanese culture, closely related to many other cultural phenomena.
There are many types of tea ceremony, of which six traditional ones stand out: night, at sunrise, morning, afternoon, evening, special.
Night ceremony. Usually performed at the moon. The gathering of guests takes place shortly before midnight, the ceremony ends no later than four in the morning. A feature of the night ceremony is that tea powder is prepared directly during the ceremony, grinding tea leaves in a mortar, and brewed very tightly. At sunrise. The ceremony begins at three to four in the morning and continues until six in the morning. Morning... It is usually carried out in hot weather (when the morning is the coolest time) and starts around six in the morning. Afternoon. Starts at about one in the afternoon, only cakes are served. Evening. Begins around six in the afternoon. Special (rinjityanoyu) the ceremony is held on special occasions: a holiday, a specially organized meeting of friends, a celebration of an event. The tea ceremony could be carried out in preparation for the most important events, for example, for a battle or for ritual suicide. Here the "tea master" played a special role. He must have had great inner qualities. He had to strengthen his guest or guests before a responsible step. The culture of this period reflects political and economic processes. Old forms were destroyed, people developed new relationships and created a different perception of the world, which gave rise to fresh cultural creations. The military dictatorship of the early 16th century gradually developed into a policy of enlightened rule. The architecture of the 16th-19th centuries demonstrates a clear stylistic duality. On the one hand, the craving for ostentatious splendor and decorative saturation was clearly manifested. On the other hand, the trend towards the expressiveness of clean construction continued to develop, primarily in the unique architecture of teahouses. The maturation of feudal society and the development of urban trade gave rise to the growth of a rich creative culture. Establishing their possession, feudal lords erected permanent castles in its center, placing them on flat terrain, which made more convenient transport links and the construction of cities around the castles. The castle was a real military building, since with the beginning of the use of firearms, the feudal lords turned the castles into complex, militarily and significant in scale structures. The castle - the palace can be considered an expression of aesthetic ideals, the top of the new feudal nobility. The main building has always been a tower - "tenshu", which embodied the strength and power of the owner of the castle. If the enemy penetrated the tower, its owner had only one thing left - to commit ritual suicide - "seppuk" in order to avoid the shame of defeat. The first castle in the history of Japan surrounded by stone walls was "Azuchi", located on the shores of Lake Biwa. But in the same 16th century. it was burned and destroyed. Only powerful foundations have survived. The influence of this castle on the architectural tradition of Japan was so great that Azuchi became a kind of model for all castles built in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Currently, only 12 original castle towers from this period have survived. Traditional theatrical genres occupied a large place in the system of medieval Japanese culture. They not only embodied the main aesthetic ideas of the time, but had a significant impact on the fine and decorative arts, in turn, perceiving and mastering their discoveries. Outside of contact with the theater, many phenomena of social life and the features of Japanese artistic culture in general will remain incomprehensible. Drama schools No, Kabuki and Dzeruri occupy a special place in the theatrical culture of Japan. Theater No is symbolic. Each gesture and movement is a conventional sign that conveys this or that state of mind of the hero. Stage movement is devoid of any improvisation, it consists of 250 canonical poses - kata. They can be purely danceable or symbolize emotions. The most important role in all actions of the actor is played by the fan. All shite dances and all kinds of character characteristics are performed with a fan. Masks also play an equally important role (in performances, 4 main types of masks are used: elders and deities, warriors, women, demons) and costumes that have their own symbolic meanings. The development of dramatic art in Japan was determined by Kabuki (actor's theater) and Dzeruri (puppet theater). Kabuki theater was founded in the early 17th century. in Kyoto and became the favorite entertainment of the townspeople. The prototype of Kabuki was the type of dance in which women appeared in unusual costumes. Originating in Kyoto at the beginning of the Edo period, this dance was named Kabuki Odori and was worthy of being noticed because of its free style, novelty and freedom of character. These early dances and parodies developed into plays with a certain dramatic structure. Ultimately, women were removed from the scene due to the threat of civil disorder perpetrated by men who competed in their favor, and older men developed into serious actors in what turned out to be known as Kabuki. The dominant position was occupied by plays related to history, legends and modern life, and the themes of humanity, loyalty and love. Towards the middle of the Edo period, a number of good playwrights emerged, through whose efforts Kabuki became the traditional drama of Japan. The priority in Kabuki of acting over everything else has led to the fact that great importance is attached to the continuity of the family name and acting tradition. All theatrical genres are a vivid and distinctive phenomenon of the artistic culture of Japan. Throughout the medieval period, theater was an important part of the spiritual life of the Japanese people, expressing the ethical and aesthetic ideals of the time. Art lovers are well aware of NETsKE - small different figurines made of bone or wood, made by Japanese and Chinese masters. A strange, incomprehensible world lurks behind miniature images of deities, benevolent symbols, people, animals, birds, fish. At first, these works charm only with virtuosity of performance. The sculpture, three to four centimeters high, does not miss a single detail. Everything is conveyed accurately and expressively, with inimitable liveliness, spontaneity in the interpretation of nature, often with humor and fantasy. From an artistic point of view, netsuke is an art that, based on the entire previous development of Japanese culture, has developed a kind of plastic language. From the point of view of the history of culture, the plots of netsuke act as an inexhaustible source for the study of manners, customs, religious and moral ideas - in a word, the life of Japan in the 17th-19th centuries. Being by their purpose utilitarian, household items, netsuke eventually turned into a true art. Who of us has not seen the mysterious short poems that look like a hieroglyphic picture? A few strokes of the brush - and before you a complete thought, image, philosophy. Hokku, tanka, haiku. What is it, how and when did such verses appear and how do they differ? They appeared in the Middle Ages. Nobody knows when it all began, it is known for sure that all these forms of Japanese versification were born from folk songs and ... the syllabic alphabet. Japanese poetry is based on alternating a certain number of syllables. There is no rhyme, but much attention is paid to the sound and rhythmic organization of the poem. Hokku, or haiku (opening verses), is a genre of Japanese poetry: a non-rhymed three-line of 17 syllables (5 + 7 + 5). The art of writing hokku is, first of all, the ability to say a lot in few words. Genetically, this genre is associated with tanka. Tanka (short song) is the oldest genre of Japanese poetry (first recorded in the 8th century). 31 syllable non-rhymed five-verses (5 + 7 + 5 + 7 + 7). It expresses a fleeting mood, full of understatement, is distinguished by poetic grace, often - complex associativity, verbal play. The renga poem did not have thematic unity, but its motives and images were most often associated with the description of nature, and with the obligatory indication of the season. The opening stanza (hokku) was often the best stanza in the rengi. So separate collections of exemplary hokku began to appear. The Trinity became firmly established in Japanese poetry in the second half of the seventeenth century. Hokku has a steady meter. Our life is a dewdrop Let only a drop of dew Our life - and yet ... Sakura is a well-known symbol of Japan and Japanese culture - a plant revered by the Japanese for a long time. Hanami is a Japanese national tradition of flower viewing, the most famous of which is the cherry blossom. There are many cultures of sakura, in particular - Somei Yoshino Sakura ( ソメイヨシノ ), first cultivated in the Edo Period and widely spread throughout Japan since the Meiji era. In the old days, the dominant cultural position was occupied by Yamazakura ( 山桜 - "mountain cherry"), Yaedzakura ( 八重桜 - "cherry with double petals") and the famous sakura Yoshino - derived from Yamazakura. Since the days of Meiji, the image of sakura has been on the headdresses of students and the military as an indicator of rank. Currently used on the coats of arms of the Japanese police and armed forces. In addition, sakura is a traditional symbol of female youth and beauty. In Japan, there is a 100 yen coin with the image of sakura in common use. march, starting from the 4th year of Heisei (1992) by the public organization "Japanese Sakura Society", the Sakura Blossom Festival was introduced. This holiday takes place in all regions of Japan, the time depends on the time of cherry blossom. Japanese culture is very multifaceted…. Japanese food is almost the main reason to visit Japan and the most capricious eater will be delighted to learn that the menu in this country is not limited to sushi, tempura and sukiyaki, which are most famous in other countries. With the exception of shokudo (eateries) and izakaya (pub equivalent), most Japanese restaurants specialize in one area of \u200b\u200bcuisine. In most restaurants, diners choose their own composition of the dish, mainly a mixture of meat, seafood and vegetables that are baked in cabbage. There are also restaurants specializing in charcoal grills. Drinking culture is the glue that holds Japanese society together. Everyone drinks alcohol here, almost every adult, be it a man or a woman, and most teenagers. Beer is a favorite in these parts, the Japanese drink it everywhere, buying it from vending machines even on the territory of temples. Sake (rice wine) is consumed warm or cold, but with a warm snack. Having a sake hangover is unforgettable, so drink in moderation. Japan is also famous for its green tea, which is high in vitamin C and caffeine. It is very refreshing and energizing, and as it became known recently, it also prevents cancer. Japanis an amazing country. Everything is unique here - cities, language, culture. Everyone who has ever been to Japan claims that they have not seen anything like it in any other country in the world. cultural japan samurai tea hokku A teardrop of stars on a peony petal A timid look - an embarrassed silence ... A brook murmurs, running down the slope ... Easy so watercolor ... charm ... And a thin path, a thread of silk Leads higher and higher, with the sky on a date ... A bee sat on a lotus flower, Let the thick bangs rustle the reeds ... The sunrise will give inspiration Having painted the sky with the caress of dreams of iris, Birthing the first ray - a moment of fate ... Yes, the noise of green branches, cypress, Looking back at the flexible bamboo mill, Picks up a sunny daffodil rainbow ... Science is born there of ancient wisdom ... The subtlest semitones have a deep meaning ... And the beat of the heart is a mystery of feelings and sound ... Such a vast world ... so distant ... In the gardens of the universe with cherry petals ... You were there ... tell me ... is he lonely? ..
