Japan was the first at the same time and the only Asian country inserted on the path of independent capitalist development. This development was peculiar because the cargo of feudal remnants was experiencing, which largely slowed down this development.
Japanese capitalism was a military-feudal character, which meant domination in the economic life of monopolies, combined with the dominance of militaristic clicks supported by the landowners.
Despite such a contradiction, the transformation of Japan to a centralized state occurred with a rapid pace and Japan from a weak backward feudal country was nominated as a "Great Power", which was an attractive example for other Asian countries remaining on the position of colonies or half-colonia.
Concentration and monopolization processes
At this stage, the concentration of production continued, the structure of Japanese exports changed - there was no longer export of raw materials into industrialized countries, but exporting finished products to China and Korea. With a rather low level of development of capitalist relations within the country, Japan began to export capital to China, Korea and Taiwan.
The working conditions of the workers were harder here: the duration of the day reached 15-18 hours, although the salary in the years of the rise increased slightly. The number of workers in 1914 amounted to 1 million people. The work of women and children was widely used. The working day of children and women was distinguished from adults, but paid 10 times cheaper. Even in the industry, the remnants of feudal orders were preserved - the physical punishment of workers was applied.
The impetus for further monopolization was given a financial crisis of 1897-1898. and the global crisis of overproduction 1900-1903. Japanese monopolies immediately developed as financial and industrial groups, which was explained by the "state" character of the Japanese capitalism - here there was a state-monopolistic capitalism. Another difference in the monopolization process in Japan is the spread of influence on various directions, not limited to the monopolization of a branch of production or sales of one product. Explanation of this is a chronic drawback of capital. With this nature of the monopolization, competition was weakened, and in addition, factory goods, for example, in the textile industry, where minor manufactories prevailed, provided a stable profit and without control over the entire market.
The aspiration of young Japanese capitalism to China and Korea led to the Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905. The entire economy of the country was delivered to military rails. Domestic loans, including forced nature, were distributed. Land tax increased from 3 to 17%. Real wages decreased by 20%. Civil engineering coagulation led to unemployment. Sky area decreased. The foreign debt of the country has grown - 60% of military expenses were covered by foreign loans.
After winning this war, Japan captured South Manchuria, as well as South Sakhalin. Japanese monopolies rushed into the territory of these countries. The share of Japanese goods has now been in the import of Korea and Manchuria, respectively, 74 and 60%. Special colonial banks were created. In 1906 A semi-state concern has been formed, which began the construction of the South Manchu Railway. For 1900 - 1914 Japanese investments in these countries increased from 1 million to $ 220 million.
The economic expansion caused the rise of the industry, the wave of foundations and capital was rising more evenly distributed between the heavy and light industry. Intensified capital concentration began to overtake the concentration of production. On the eve of the First World War, 0.4% of all companies owned 38% of the cumulative capital of the country. The leading bank was the Bank of Japan (established in 1882), in which the main part of the financial resources was accumulated. Investments in industrial enterprises he carried out indirectly through various banks. Preference in financing was provided to strategic industries.
The financial and banking system of Japan was distinguished by an uniqueness - it included public financial institutions, such as deposit bureaus (trust stock bureau) and price savings system.
In such industries as sugar, cement, coal, production of railway equipment has emerged new cartels and syndicates. Old monopolies "Mitsui" and "Mitsubishi" turned into genuine concerns led by holding companies. Other companies - "Asano", "Fujitito", "Okura", and others, also received large enterprises from the government in various industries from the government, were monopolies.
However, Japan lagged behind Western European countries and the United States, in its national income, the share of industry reached only 40%. At the beginning of the XX century. About 2/3 of the country's population was occupied in agriculture.
Questions for repetition
1. Name the factors that identify the high rates of the US economic development at the end of the XIX-early XX century.
2. What was the features of the sectoral and territorial structure of the US industry?
3. Compare the processes of concentration and monopolization of production and capital in the United States and in Germany.
4. Explain why the end of the XIX-beginning XX century. It is considered the beginning of state-monopoly capitalism.
5. What causes and features of economic development led to foreign economic expansion of Japan?
Japan 1950-1960-Hg.
After crisis phenomena 1953-1954. In Japan, the economic lift began, which received the name "Jimm's prosperity". He lasted until 1957 and had a significant impact on the formation of the structure of the country's post-war economy.
In 1952, in order to protect small production from the economic downturn, the law on stabilization of small businesses was first admitted to male industrial and commercial associations. In the same year, a law on export-import transactions was adopted, authorized the creation of export-imported cartels. In 1966, a law was adopted to stimulate special industries aimed at the consolidation of enterprises through their association and merger in petrochemistry, automotive, electronics. In order to increase the international competitiveness of Japanese goods, the government carried out forced cartels. The Ministry of Western Trade and Industry had the right to speak with a proposal to coordinate prices for the same products of various enterprises, as well as about choosing one company from several, applying for the export of homogeneous products in one t. In the 60s. There is a liberalization of the import of foreign goods and capital to Japan, which forced the growth of mergers of large Japanese enterprises to create a counterweight to foreign competitors. During these years, 10 leading Japanese trading houses focused more than half of the total internal trading operations, half of the total exports and 60% of the country's import were held through them. The post-war weakening of "antimonopolistic legislation" contributed to the change in the organizational forms of Japanese financial capital and the creation of a new monopolistic structure of the market based on several financial and industrial groups - "Mitsubishi", "Mitsui", "Fuji", "Sumito", "Sanva". In the hierarchical structure of the pre-war "Dzaybatsu", the parent company kept the shares of all the companies belonging to the Group and carried out centralized leadership, while banks controlled financial, and trading companies - trade aspects of the concern. Unlike the pre-war "Dzaibatsu", the presidents of the Head Companies of modern financial and industrial groups formally began to possess equal rights. In fact, the main voice belonged to the most influential firm, which controlled the entire group. Nevertheless, modern groups began to externally rely on "democratic and decentralized bases", which gave them greater maneuverability bypassing the actual antimonopolistic norms. The growth of the economy in these years contributed to the following factors: the low cost of labor; Military orders of the Japanese government (especially American military orders in the years of Korean and Vietnamese wars); Small military spending on the state budget (less than 1%). In the first post-war years, the United States financed Japan's military spending by 80%, which created a favorable environment for Japanese monopolistic capital. In general, the development of the Japanese military, especially rocket-nuclear, industry occurred with the participation of American monopolies; The multi-sectoral structure of the concern, which ensured the possibility of maneuvering capital, raw materials, workforce depending on the changes in the external market conditions; planning. The Cabinet of Ministers created the Committee of Economic Planning, which was engaged in the study of the external and domestic market opportunities, the preparation of operational scientific and technical information not only for government circles and bodies, but also for private companies, regulation of public investments for the development of the most important industries and financing of scientific research works in new industries (nuclear industry, rocket art, etc.); Purchase of licenses, scientific and technical revolution; Updating the fixed capital associated with the transition to the latest equipment. The process of replacing outdated equipment, which began during the Korean War, covered all industries; Development of exports. Until 1965, Japan imported more, but from the mid-60s. Its foreign trade balance has become active; Psychological factor - community of interests. The socio-economic development of Japan in 1970 - 1980.At this time, there is a reduction in the number of ministries. The role of the state is changed, the minimum intervention in the affairs of the economy is practiced. Administrative Guide is becoming an "administrative leadership" - conducting official and informal consultations between government bodies and representatives of big business, indirect financial and economic levers of regulating economic activity are applied. The current highly monopolized market structure in the 70s. Created a pricing mechanism that stimulates inflation. There was a loss of "elasticity down", the price movement took place only upwards, the number of speculative operations grew. Increasing the number of speculative operations with land and real estate in the 1970s - 80s. stimulated by the tax policy state. During these years, land tenure tax rate was 1.4% of the land price (in the US-3%). Until the Second World War, the Japanese landowners paid 3.8% in the form of a tax on the land of the land, and the differences for agricultural land and the area under the residential building were not done. In 1970 - 80s. In areas belonging to Tokyo, Osaka, Naked from agricultural land began to collect a tax, which makes approximately 1/200 from the corresponding indicator for the area under the residential building. At the same time, the government recommended returning to a pre-war order, which would prompted landowners, and peasants including areas that have fallen into the line of expanding cities, to the wide sale of the Earth or to the construction on it housing, with subsequent rental. The government believed that such a mechanism would cause a decline in land prices in these areas, which will lead to a general reduction in the cost of housing, the cost of cooperative apartments is about 2 times, as in areas located near the capital of the capital, 90% of the cost of such an apartment accounted for a fee For land and 10% for construction costs. In 1971, the term appears in Japan " economic security "And after the oil crisis of 1973, he becomes the most important component of the concept of" National Security ". At the same time, the economic vulnerability of Japan, due to the high level of external resource dependence (up to 80%), was taken into account. One of the consequences of the oil crisis of 1973 was the adoption in the country of the preliminary plan of economic development in 1975 - 1985, where the problem of the country's economic security was specifically marked and the need to solve it in connection with the provision of Japan with raw materials, energy and food resources was emphasized. In the medium-term new seven-year plan of economic and social development (1979), it was clearly indicated by the obligation to implement the internal and foreign policy, taking into account economic security. In December 1980, the Cabinet of Ministers of Japan creates the Secretary Security Council, which has determined economic security as the protection of the country's economy from any external threat. For Japan, it was important not only to achieve guaranteed to ensure the supply of raw materials, energy and food, but also contribute to improving world demand and proposals through joint development countries in the field of search for alternative sources of energy, assistance in the development of the agricultural base in countries Suppliers, cooperation in the fields of technology and finance. In the field of energy security of Japan for the 1970s - 80s. Actions were carried out to create strategic oil reserves (raw). Since 1976, private entrepreneurs since 1978 and government structures began to be created by storage facilities and strategic oil products. Reserves were created at the rate of self-sufficiency at a national scale up to 90 days, later up to 70 days. 10 strategic storage facilities of ground, underground and marine basing were created, in which the oil and petroleum products of 80 million k / l were concentrated in 1994. In these years, alternative oil energy has emerged in the country's energy balance, primarily atomic energy. From 1975 to 1993, the share of atomic energy in the energy balance of the country increased from 1.5% to 11.1%. In 1980. The standard of living of the Japanese grew 7 times faster than among Americans, economic growth rate in 1960 - 70. amounted to 10%, in the 80s. - 4.4% per year. Japan's GNP was 3 TRL. dol., USA- 4, 6 TRL. Dol. In 1987, 19.2 thousand became a per capita in Japan in Japan. dol. and in the USA - 18.2 thousand dollars. In the mid-1980s. Japan came out in the first place in the world by the number of patents that cause the greatest interest. In 1986, Japan became the largest creditor country in the world, coming out in the first place for the total amount of foreign investment and loans to foreign partners, which was 200 billion dollars. The United States has turned into a debtor. Reducing the competitiveness of American goods in foreign markets was one of the reasons that during these years the US foreign trade deficit increased, reaching 172.2 billion dollars in 1986. From 1986 to 1991, Japanese investments in the United States increased 5 times, and Japanese businessmen have come out in the third place in the list of citizens of foreign countries that own capital in the United States. In the late 1980s. - early 90s. Japan accounted for 40 out of 70 billion US foreign trade deficits. Approximately 1 million Americans worked on "purely" Japanese or mixed enterprises. Of the 10 banks in the most dynamic part of the United States California three belonged to the Japanese. In the list of the largest banks of the world, the first lines were occupied by Japanese banks. In the 80s. There were friction on the basis of the imbalance of Japan in trade with partners from among developed countriesFirst of all with the United States. This situation was largely influenced by the consequences of the special behavior of the Japanese and structural featuresInherent in the "Japanese Economic Model": the situation of "absent" is low compared to other developed countries, consumption compared to other developed countries, which made it possible to allocate "unassigned resources" to expand foreign trade. This social behavior was a consequence of the era of the post-war revival and rapid economic growth with its asceticism and a high level of accumulation. In the mid-1980s. As a result of the targeted efforts of the government and Nazhima by Washington, the level of internal consumption in Japan increased and the country approached the international standards of economically developed countries of the world. However, the share of GNP consumption still became in the late 1980s. decrease and in 1991 amounted to 56%, and in developed countries - 60%;
In the eyes of the ruling top of Japan, a significant positive foreign trade balance was a kind of guarantee of the situation in modern world their countries that do not have a military nor great political influence; Japan accumulated at the expense of trade imbalances Financial reserves were needed to provide effective assistance to third-world countries; Closed for foreign capital Japanese market. Back in the 60s. Japan has introduced protectionist barriers against foreign direct investment and allowed the functioning of special Japanese financial and industrial groups opposing the access of "algorous".
In 1970 - 1980 The Japanese society created a modern information system. Japan turned into a technotronic society, freeing people for service operations. There appeared the theory of "human limits", involving the creation of thinking and decision makers. Japanese management developed. The most striking manifestation of the Japanese organization management system, along with others, was the theory of "optimal groups", which formed in the composition of 12-15 people in kindergartens and developing to production groups.
Japan entered into the path of development of capitalism when world capitalism passed to the stage of imperialism. The reforms that set capitalist orders were held in Japan only in the 70s of the XIX century.
Features of feudalism in Japan and its decomposition
Feudalism in Japan referred to the type of Eastern feudalism or the Asian method of production. The Emperor (Snebny or Mikado) was considered the Supreme Owner of the Earth, as well as his vassals - princes (daima). Japan was divided into feudal principalities, and each principality was an independent state - he had his troops, collected duties on the borders. Japan was a feudal-fragmented state.
The emperor was only nominally was the head of Japan. The real power was in the hands of Sögun - commander-in-chief. In the XVII century The position of Sögun captured the princes from the genus Tokugawa, and therefore the period of history from the XVII century. The bourgeois revolution is called Tokugawa Sögunat.
The feudal estate in Japan was samurai - servicemen. It should be emphasized that in Japan, in addition to samurai to military service, no one was allowed; Representatives of other classes even forbidden to take a weapon in the hands of death.
The entire population of Japan was divided into 4 estates: samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants, and the transition from one class to another was categorically prohibited. The closure of classes, characteristic of feudalism, was generally brought to the limit. The laws even defined food, clothing and life of each class. So, the peasants were forbidden to eat rice, and they could only wear linen or cotton clothing. Silk could only wear samurai. All classes were dispersed in front of samurai. Samurai could only kill versators only in order to "experience a new weapon" or for simple ignorance.
At the same time, the estates of artisans and merchants were officially lower than the peasants. Trade and craft were considered humiliating. In addition, the property of these urban classes was not protected by law, on the contrary, the laws of states from the time of the samurai were released from the return of debts to merchants and rospers.
Naturally, in such conditions, trade and craft developed extremely slowly. The population of cities consisted mainly of samurai. At the beginning of the XVII century. Samurai amounted to 3/4 of the urban population of Japan, and artisans and merchants - only 1/4.
The naturalness of the farm manifested itself in the fact that the taxes were going to in nature, and the sorry of samurai was paid in kind - rice. And in the Japan market, natural commodity exchange was widely practiced, and the rice was also used as a measure of value.
Samurai were not landowners, did not have land possessions with peasants. For the service, they received "rice pieces" - from 5 to 15 tons of rice per year. This rice state received from the peasants in the form of military tax, i.e. The tax on the content of the samurai army. This tax can be considered as a "centralized" rent, since due to its faeodal existed. According to the law, 40% harvest should be given as a tax, but almost its value was 50-70% of the harvest.
Since there were no landowners, it was not a barbecue. But there was a state labor service, public works, peculiar to the Asian method of production: the peasants built channels, roads, transported various goods, etc.
The decomposition of feudalism began with the end of the XVII century. It was manifested in the destruction of the textual structure and development of roshoff. In feudal Japan, other business spheres were almost closed. The development of domestic trade was hampered by the extreme narrowness of the domestic market and feudal fragmentation, and foreign trade was prohibited at all. The absence of a largely wide market market did not allow to develop a large industry. Roshdom is the only way to use the money and received hypertrophy-ugly development.
First of all, the peasants fell into Kabalu to Rostovers. In ensuring the debt, they laid their land plots. It was illegal, because the land was not the property of the peasants and its mortgage was banned. When the peasant could not return debt with interest, the Roshovist, again, bypassing the law, became the owner of his land. The peasant continued on this land to lead the economy, pay the tax of the prince, but now he should be additionally paid to this and rent to the land owner. These new owners were called "new landlords" - jinsey. By the middle of the XIX century. The third part of the land being processed, and a third of the peasants turned out to be in the position of the category of bible tenants.
Thus, the system of land tenure turned out to be very difficult: the Supreme Owner of the Earth is the emperor, "legal" - the prince, an additional "illegal" - jinsey, and the farm in this earth was led by a peasant.
But samurai fell into the row to the robustrs. The natural form of their salaries inevitably led to this: to meet their needs, the samurai needed money, and not only only rice. Money could be obtained from usurists. In the XVIII century The special guild of the Roshovshchikov, who were engaged in buying in samurai receipts on rice soldering. According to some counts to the middle of the XIX century. There were already 7/8 of the national wealth of Japan in the hands of Roshovists and merchants.
Of course, at the same time the lowest estate of Japan (and the usurists belonged to the estate of merchants) actually no longer occupied the lower step of the social staircase. Using a balled dependence on the feudalists, they are often forced those "adopting" themselves through adoption immediately go to the highest estate.
Part of samurai loses service and class. The fact is that samurai lived better than other classes, did not die from hunger even in a hungry year, so their share in the total population increased, everyone had lacking place in the service, and part of Samurai turned out to be without work. Such "unemployed" samurai (Ronins) did not receive rice soldering, but lived in cities, engaged in craft and trade, that the law was categorically prohibited.
In this inconsistency of real life, the law and the decomposition of feudalism was manifested. The penetration of capitalist relations to the country slowed down the policy of the violent insulation of Japan, which the seguns were conducted from the XVII century. The purpose of this policy was to substitute existing StroyTo prevent foreign influence, which could break the foundations of the established relationship. This policy was that the Japanese were forbidden to visit other countries and build vessels suitable for marine travel. Foreign courts in Japanese harbor were not allowed. The exception was made only for the merchants of Holland and China, but also the limited: in one of the Harbor of Japan for the year the arrival of two Dutch and several Chinese courts for the year was allowed to trade and even contact foreigners could not with the population, but only with government officials.
The result of the insulation was the economic stagnation of Japan from the end of the XVII century. To the bourgeois revolution of 1868. More than one and a half centuries, the surname, annual production of rice and even the population remained at the same level.
True, manuff production is still born at this time and makes the first steps. Manufactory here arose in two ways.
First. Under the conditions of natural economy, the peasants were forced to prepare craft products at home. Over time, a buyer appeared and a manufactory was born, mainly for the production of silk and cotton fabrics.
Second. Some princes organize metallurgical and porcelain manufactories. It is known that even samurai worked on the princely manufactories.
Industry development
The beginning of the industrial coup and industrialization of Japan should be considered the 70s of the XIX century. When the factory industry is created by the state of the state.
The first decades after the revolution private capital in the industry did not go. The process of initial accumulation in Japan did not end, capital lacked, so the loan percentage was several times higher than in developed capitalist countries, the use of capital in the field of loan was quite profitable. Therefore, the state had to do the construction of factories on the treasury. It invites European engineers, discharges European techniques and builds "exemplary" enterprises. "Exemplary" - because they had to serve as a model for private entrepreneurs.
Gradually develop conditions for private entrepreneurship, and in the 1980s, state enterprises are transferred to private hands. Because they were transmitted on very preferential terms, their owners become people who had good connections in government circles. These were old trade and usual homes and the most born samurai.
The course of the industrial coup was slowed down by an excess of cheap labor. Its low cost reduced incentive to introduce machines. Therefore, at the beginning of World War, the coup in Japan was not completed: 40% of enterprises remained still on the manufactory stage, 60% of the population was employed in agriculture, and exported Japan mainly agricultural products - tea and raw silk.
The traditions of the Asian method of production were reflected in the relations folding in industry. Semi-ferrous methods of operation and "Patennalism" remained here. In accordance with the traditions, the owner of the enterprise was considered "father" and the patron saint of workers, controlled all directions of their lives, and in Japanese enterprises were practiced physical punishment of workers for misconducts related to production. Naturally, such an order additionally lowered the level of wages.
Features of Japanese imperialism
So, Japan joined the path of capitalism when the world has already passed to imperialism. Therefore, Japanese capitalism was born immediately in imperialist form, acquired the features of imperialism. Imperialism here arose until the completion of the industrial coup, while maintaining many remnants of the Asian production method. Therefore, Japanese imperialism is customary to attribute to the type of military-feudal.
What was the features of Japanese imperialism as a military feudal?
First, in a special form of monopolies - Zaibatsu. It was not a completely monopoly, because they did not arise during the competitive struggle and concentration of production, but with the distribution of state-owned enterprises in private hands. People who had good connections could capture a whole group of enterprises. Here is a group of enterprises in one hands and was called Zaibatsu.
It was not a completely monopoly, because they did not monopolize anything. These were mostly conglomerates consisting of enterprises of various industries.
The first place among Dzaybatsu was occupied by Mitsui. It consists of a bank, textile, mountain, trading enterprises. The company Mitsubishi was located on the second place. It contains navigable and shipbuilding enterprises, coal mines.
Secondly, Japan begins a colonial expansion when herself is still in the half-colonia position, when she was not needed economically. Industrial coup has not yet ended, and exported Japan, as already mentioned, mainly agricultural products that are not taken into the colony.
But in power in Japan were samurai - a military feudal caste. The samurai government has undergone pressure from the mass of samurai ragged in the capitalization, which assumed that only the war could correct and strengthen their position. In other words, Japan needed sales markets and sources of raw materials, but war and new lands.
Japan did not become a colony. Non-equivance contracts that have put Japan in the position of the half-colonia were revoked in the 90s. Japan saved rivalry powered in the Far East. The object of rivalry was not small Japan, but a large China, but Japan was an important strategic position on the approaches to China, and each of the powers could not allow the opponent to take this position. Using this circumstance, Japan not only avoided the fate of the colony, but also he herself tried to participate in China's section.
Already in the 90s, as a result of the war with China, she takes Taiwan from him, Pescador Islands and subordinates to his influence Korea. As a result of the Russian-Japanese war 1904-1905. She receives a quanta of a certain area with Port Arthur, half of Sakhalin, and after two years it concludes with the Tsarist Government on the section of Manchuria on the spheres of influence.
In the development of the economy of Japan in the post-war time there are three stages. 1946 - 1951 There were a recovery period. During the war, Japan lost almost 25% of production funds. The decline in production in 1945 amounted to 63%. The inflation rate in 1945 - 1950. reached 7000%. The government continued to interfere in all sectors of the economy. In order not to be hunger, the country imported food. Japan was forbidden to participate in international trade. Imports controlled the Government and the Supreme Command of the Allied Forces.
An important role in the restoration of the Japanese economy belonged to state regulation, progressive reforms - land, in the field of labor relations, the elimination of headquarters. The beginning of state regulation was the freezing of bank deposits, the denomination of the yen, a new system of fixed prices and the introduction of a new property tax. The Committee of Economic Stabilization and the Bank for the Reconstruction of Japan were established. Using such economic instruments such as the rationing of strategic goods, the policy of priority industries, which were forced 1/2 of the investment resources of commercial banks, limiting subsidies with the size of state funds, ban on the increase in wages above the inflation level, fixing the exchange rate of the yen, the government managed to reduce inflation . The normalization of public finance and the restoration of the reproduction mechanism was facilitated by the Line of J. Dodgesa, who President of the USA, G. Truman instructed to lead the transformation in Japan. Stabilization policy provided for a single exchange rate of currency (360 yen for $ 1), improving the organization and management of enterprises, gradually banning subsidies for export and production, cancellation of price controls, equalizing them with world, implementation of the principles of the free market. Foreign trade was denationalized. At the same time, external financial transactions were controlled. To regulate cash flows across the border, a budget system of foreign currency was created and a law on foreign investment was adopted.
During 1946-1950. The structure of Japanese joint-stock ownership has changed. During the Decartelization, the main companies were eliminated and state control over the merger of companies and cards (Antimonopoly Law 1947). He contributed to the growth of industrial production and the development of the domestic market of land reform of the 40s, which led to the industrialization of the village, the emergence of new labor legislation, raising the living standards.
The pre-war level of industrial production in Japan was exceeded in 1951. During the first half of the 50s, the growth rates slowed down, since production facilities reached a possible maximum. The second half of the 50s - 60s has become a period of updating and expanding production capacity, their upgrades. The decisive sign of Japan during this period was the high rates of economic growth.
Structural changes in the economy were primarily in the development of industry. The main direction was the formation of first basic industries, then the production of high-tech products. In general manufacturing, the proportion of electric power industry and coal mining has decreased. The trend of heavy industry growth was continued.
The development of radio electronics, instrument and shipbuilding, production of artificial rubber, resins, fibers, plastics, energy and materials-saving equipment has become paramount importance. Japan ranked second after the United States to use AUM, car release. The role of nuclear power plants has increased. The pace of development of the textile and food industry slowed down.
An important place in the Japanese economy traditionally occupied the non-production sphere. After the war, the agrarian overpopulation was favorable factor. Working force, which the industry could not be absorbed, went to the scope of services and trade. For her, there were characteristic many small enterprises.
The noticeable driving force of the economic development of Japan was the growth of capital investments. The scale of updating the production assets of Japan belonged first place in the world.
The qualitative update of the Japanese economy was associated with the development of scientific and technological progress. The R & D deployment process in Japan has its own specifics. Weak own scientific potential was compensated by the introduction of foreign scientific and technical experience.
A significant role in the rapid development of the economy had a cheap labor force of Japanese workers.
Japanese monopolies have strengthened their positions. The activities of financial and industrial groups have resumed, new ones. The feature of the economy was its dual structure - the parallel existence of a large, small and middle industry.
Extremely important in post-war Japan had the regulatory role of the state in the economic sphere. For the 50s, three-year-old, two five-year-olds, six-year economic development plans were developed. They determined the goals, development conditions, revealed "narrow" places of the economy, including that state policy was conducted and public investments were distributed.
Economic activities were carried out on the principles of private initiative through the market mechanism and the price mechanism. The state has become a major producer and consumer of industrial products.
Credit and financial measures The state carried out through the Japanese bank and specialized government credit and financial institutions, the state budget.
The implementation of the course for industrialization, the forced development of industries, which determined technical progress, brought Japan to second place in the global industry.
In the 70s and 190s, Japan occupied second place after the United States in industrial world production. The peak of the "Japanese miracle" passed. All over the world has adverse conjunctural conditions. In 1973-1974. In world markets, oil prices rose 4 times. Since the economy of Japan on 3/4 depended on the imported oil, then real panic reigned in the country's farm. In order to get out of the crisis, Japan has increased the export of goods. Every year in the USA, the Japanese implemented up to 2 million cars. The second way, which was supposed to withdraw Japan from stagnation, is a change in the economic strategy or course for the comprehensive development of the newest, high-tech industries: the production of computer, robots, thin chemical compounds, machinery control machines, treatment facilities, communication equipment, nuclear power plants. Japan spent a significant proportion of GNP to scientific research, reducing the costs of previous traditional industries - shipbuilding, metallurgy, petrochemistry. Due to this, overcoming crisis phenomena, it retained in the 70s-190s second place among economically developed countries of the world. In order to prevent sharp decals in the dynamic development of your farm, the Government of Japan approved the plan of state regulation of the national economy.
Modern monetarism
At the stage of the information technology revolution, the industrial countries of the world made a significant leap in their development. At this stage, new views are formed regarding effective growth and new economic schools appear. Since the beginning of the 1980s, neoconservatism, which covers the three main directions of the new neoclassic, is dominated in developed capitalist countries:
1) monetarism associated with the regulation of the economy through the scope of monetary circulation. Only a consistent economy policy for money, according to monetarists, can create confidence of economic agents in the non-inflationary development of the economy and contribute to uniform investment with minimal risk;
2) the economic theory of the proposal, according to which the excessive tax increase deprives entrepreneurs to investment in investment and thus leads to the fall in the production and undermining the financial base, and the decline in tax rates is a sufficient condition for stimulating entrepreneurial activity and initiative;
3) The theory of rational expectations according to which economic agents in any case do not justify the hopes of power structures, because they take into account the intentions of the authorities in advance and neutralize their measures (raising or lower prices) by government policies. Decisively against J. M. Keynes and Keynesians made Milton Friedmen, a representative of the Chicago school. In economic literature, this speech was called the neoclassical (monetarist) counter-revolution (as opposed to the Keynesian revolution). In a broad sense, monetarism is all economic doctrines that provide money primary importance and related to the development of monetary policies aimed at regulating the money supply in circulation. Such concepts are implemented today in various forms in the US economic policy and other developed countries. Thus, the "monetarist revival" was not a random response to the tough inflation of the 70s or simply a reaction to the crisis of the Keynesianism. The basis of modern monetaristic concepts is a quantitative theory of money, which emerged in the XVI century. And according to which the level of commodity prices is higher than the more money in circulation. Monetarism has significantly expanded the possibilities of neoclassical theory by adding empirical studies based on economic and statistical models.
The conclusion about the decisive effect of cash factors for general economic processes was substantiated by M. Fridmen and A. Schwarz in the work "The Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960" and was formulated as:
Changing the amount of money reserve is closely related to changes in economic activity, monetary income and prices;
The relationship between monetary and economic shifts was (in certain years) stable;
Cash changes often had an independent origin, and were not a reflection of changes in economic activity.
New monetarist approaches are reduced to the following basic provisions:
1) the criticism of the state intervention in the economy (this is not about the principal denial of state intervention, but on the rejection of a specific economic policy, which is based on Keynesian methods of state regulation);
2) a bet on the monetary mass regulation policy as a major economy management tool;
3) proclaiming a private entrepreneurship of the only driving force of economic development;
4) Rehabilitation of the SEA's Law, as a result of which the Keynesian demand management concept should give way to the site oriented on the proposal.
In the field of practical implementation of monetarist concepts, several elements can be distinguished, namely: the restructuring of the budget mechanism, the refusal of budgetary impact on the production, a decrease in budget expenditures, deregulation of certain fields of the economy, the weakening of the legal regulation of economic activities, the privatization of individual sectors of the economy, the reduction of social infrastructure and social programs.
Economic proposal theory studies the impact of budget-tax levers on the entrepreneurial activity and the effectiveness of economic activities. The main provisions of the concept of economics offers:
Orientation of the economy for production and supply;
Reduction of taxation of manufacturers in order to release part of profit for investment;
Reduction of taxation of individuals to stimulate population savings;
Privatization;
Reduction of government spending in the social sphere;
Regulation of money supply supply;
Non-interference of the state in the economy.
The level of production, according to the neoclassical theory, depends on the supply of labor and capital.
The proposal of labor is determined by the choice of individuals between labor and leisure. It is known that the growth of salary taxes means its actual decrease and leads to a reduction in labor supply. The system of state social benefits, in particular for unemployment, also reduces the attractiveness of labor, reducing the number of people willing to work. Therefore, a decrease in the utmost taxation of labor income contributes to the expansion of the supply of labor already working and stimulates the attraction of additional workers, for which the utmost utility of the wage received will exceed the utmost usefulness of leisure. Thus, the increase in labor resources will ensure the further process of capital accumulation, and in the end - an increase in the rate of accumulation and acceleration of economic growth as a whole in economics.
The proposal of capital (investment volume), according to neoclassical ideas, is a function of savings, the decision on which depends on the choice of an individual between consumption today or in the future. Stimulate the decision-making decisions can such incentive measures of economic policy as: reducing taxes on corporate profits and the introduction of tax and depreciation benefits against them. At the same time, two ways to accelerate the investment process are clearly defined:
1) the formation of additional sources of internal resources of accumulation for increasing depreciation deductions;
2) Attracting foreign investment resources by increasing the market value of corporate assets - the growth of the level of dividends paid and attractiveness of corporate securities.
One of the options of the new neoclassic is the theory of rational expectations, which completely ignored state intervention. US Economists R. Lucas, T. Sarjent, N. Wallace argue that the economic individual is not only passively adapted to the previous experience, but also actively uses a large amount of current information for accurate prediction of economic development trends. Any attempts to influence the process of reproduction through systematic state macroeconomic policies. Ideologists of rational expectations are assessed as barren not only in the long-term, but also in the short-term aspect. The main rate is made to the revival of faith in the possibility of rational behavior of economic agents in conditions when the state plays the role of only the source of information.
This theory studies before inflation expectations and therefore is a certain extent relies on the theory of adaptive expectations, according to which the expectations of future inflation is formed on the basis of previous and current inflation levels and is relatively constant. However, the theory of rational expectations has a significant difference: individuals acting rationally, not only analyze "yesterday" and "today", but also can foresee and "predict" tomorrow "using all available information.
The theory of rational expectations is well argued in theoretical plan and is supported by a serious mathematical base, but did not receive practical value.
Thus, economic theories that developed at the end of the twentieth and early XXI century were engaged in the problems of the uncertainty of the market environment, expectations and incompleteness of information. Their goal is to create adequate and effective methods of government regulation.
Neoconservatism
The neoconservative approach to restructuring of the economy assumes that competition, the market, together with private-donopalistic elements of planning, acquire priority importance, and the direct intervention of the state in the production process, distribution and redistribution should decrease. However, within its framework, the need to strengthen the role of the state in ensuring strategic prerequisites for the development and increasing the competitiveness of the country, which is especially important in the dynamic conditions of the scientific and technical revolution.
Economic crises of 1975 and 1980. Purified political and ideological crises. As a result, in the countries of the West, neoconservatism (NK) advanced in the external vescene. In the UK, Margaret Thatcher came to power, and in the USA - Ronald Reagan. NK reigned from the second half of the 70s before the early 1990s, i.e. Almost 20 years. With the arrival of Bill Clinton in the United States began restructuring.
NK - literally means the preservation of old values \u200b\u200bat the new stage. NK in a broad sense is the worldview as a whole, the overall ideology. We highlight the most important values \u200b\u200bof the NK.
The first value of the NK is the orientation for a monogamous family. The fact is that in the 60s in the West there was a sexy revolution. Western sociologists counted several dozen forms of marriage. The reason for this, they considered a sexual revolution, which destroys Western traditional values. The second value of the NK is an orientation to the church ideology, faith in God. In the 60s, there was a tendency of indifference to religion. Today, religiosity in the west in honor. Even in the army, the church is now playing an important role. The third value of the NK is a strengthened upbringing of young people on patriotic principles. Finally, the fourth value of the NK is an emphasis on the rights and freedoms, the upbringing of the spirit of enterprise, the calculation on its own strength, and not to the state.
We are interested in the NK in the economic field. It is characterized by the following values: first, it is focusing on private property and market competition, on its own enterprise. Neoconvators explain the crisis of 1975 and 1980. excessive regulation of the economy. This has found its expression in very high taxes in order to implement social programs. The highest tax rates were in Sweden - up to 75%, in the United States - 55%, in England - 35% (to the greatest share of income). According to the ideologues of the NK, such high tax rates are completely reduced to zero incentives to do business. As a result, the shadow economy is growing, and the state provokes the growth of mafia structures.
Secondly, according to the ideologues of the NK, the state holds very broad social programs. These programs generate social dependency. According to neoconservatives, when J. Kenseda, the situation was created in the 1960s, which also leads to the fall of the prestige of the economy.
To get out of the current situation, the neoconservatives offered, firstly, to privatize the state sector of the economy (on this path the government of the Conservatives of the United Kingdom was gone under the leadership of M. Thatcher) and, secondly, to reduce the share of the gross national product, which is redistributed through the state budget. They were given the following statistics: in the 70s, 30% of VPN was redistributed through the state budget, and in the 80s - 36%. In fact, specific recommendations of the NC were reduced to a decrease in taxes and social spending. In a word, it is necessary to reduce the overall level of economy regulation and revive the slogan of free entrepreneurship. This is the essence of the NK in the economic region.
In the early 60s - mid-70s, a new stage of the Scientific and Technical Revolution began (HTR) - a revolution in technology or technological revolution, the result of which was computerization, robotization and miniaturization of production. Western economists found the border of manageability with high-intestible production and economic systems. Economic systems of the 50-60s were characterized by few major enterprises that were superior to all the indicators of small business. But the results of the technological revolution (computerization, etc.) were applicable in small enterprises that have become more effective than large minor production. As a result, in the 70s, the small business began to win. In the current situation, it became difficult to manage the economy from the Unified Economic Center. Today, the multimillion nomenclature of products manufactured, very mobile. After 2-3 years, it is updated by half. It is time to objectively move the focus of centralization to autonomization.
We call the second rational moment that neoconvators caught. They proceeded from understanding that human labor is not easy. He can not be the first vital need. There is no need to work in man. Therefore, according to the NK, the economic system should always be quite tough.
There are, however, the negative moments in the NC in the economic region. First moment. If P. Samuelson put on the first plan mixed economy (neoclassical synthesis), then the NK made a roll exclusively for private property. They offered to privatize railways, urban transport, build private prisons and so on. Second moment. The NK was questioned that all the unemployed are voluntary unemployed (the idea is borrowed from L. Valras). J. M. Keynes also believed that basically unemployment is a forced phenomenon. The third moment is a relation to social spending. NK raised the question that social spending decompose the entire economic system. But the human society is objectively inherent in a system of social guarantees, especially for pensioners, disabled people and children of poor parents. By the way, for the period of the Board of the NC in any Western country, social spending declined.
Questions for self-control
1. Basic centers of economic rivalry.
2. The main characteristics of the research and information revolution.
3. Modern directions for the development of economic thoughts.
4. Strategies for the development of new industrial countries.
The socio-economic and political development of the states of Eastern and South Asia in the second half of the 20th century. Japan.
Economic and political position of Japan after World War II. Post-war settlement in the occupied Japan.
War in Korea and its impact on the economic development of Japan.
Japanese "political miracle."
Economic development of Japan. Approval of the independent role of Japan in the world.
1. Economic and political position of Japan after World War II. Post-war settlement in the occupied Japan.
Unlike Germany, occupied by the allies during the fighting on its own territory, Japan was occupied two weeks after surrender. At the same time, the United States prevented the creation of areas of the occupation of the winning countries in Japan. Since the ratio of the forces of the USSR and Western powers in the Far East was completely different than in Europe, and the Soviet contribution to the defeat of Japan was made only at the last stage of the Pacific War in the conditions of the actually started "Cold War", Moscow was forced to agree with this. As a result, American troops under the command of General Macacatour occupied Japan alone alone, although the interests of all countries that fought with Japan were formally represented.
By signing a unconditional surrender, Japan, thereby at least the conditions for the Potsdam Declaration took the conditions. Before the victims of Japan, the powers stood the task of such a post-war settlement in this country, which would prevent the revival of it as aggressive strength. It was possible only through democratization, the elimination of landlord land ownership as a source of samurai adventurism, the dissolution of monopolistic groups - Dzaibatsu as a source of aggression, demilitarization and punishment of military criminals as a future.
Almost all of the above tasks were resolved at the first stage of the occupation (1945-47) due to relative unity among the winning countries. During these years, the US public opinion remembered the treachery and cruelty of the Japanese military and supported the course for the maximum weakening of Japan as a possible opponent. In Japan, one of the most democratic bourgeois constitutions was introduced, written by the specialists of the propaganda department of the headquarters of MacArthur and translated into Japanese (Japanese lawyers themselves prepared several extremely reactionary options for the Constitution with which the winning countries could not agree). Without deciding to the elimination of the Institute of Imperial Power, the authors of the Constitution limited it with decorative functions. Constitution The criminal relations of Japan from solving foreign policy problems by military means and prohibits it to have armed forces. The agrarian reform conducted at the insistence was completed by the Maidziprocess Defodalization era.
Converts 1945-47. Released Japanese imperialism from his threatening military facilities, opened the possibility of bourgeois-democratic development. However, the United States was not in a hurry with the signing of a peace treaty and termination of the occupation: they were organized by the elastic muddy position of Japan in the conditions of the Cold War. At the second stage of the occupation (1948-51), Washington makes a bet on the transformation of Japan in its ally in the Far East (instead of Homindan China, which lives the last days). To this end, the United States creates favorable conditions for the activities of the pro-American forces and complicate the capabilities of the left games of Japan, after a number of preventive measures that ensure the loyalty of the Japanese government, Washington has delivered the project of a peaceful agreement of the winners with Japan on the San Francisa Conference 1951. At the conference convened at the height of the Korean War, disagreements should have emerged in the text of the contract.
In total, 52 countries participated in the work of the peace conference. A number of countries of victims from Japanese aggression were not invited (PRC, DPRK, MNR, DRV), India and Burma refused to participate, but all Latin American countries and Luxembourg were presented. Since the pro-American majority of the conference did not want to amend the draft treaty prepared by the State Department, the Soviet delegation left it and a peace treaty between the USSR (Russia) and Japan there is still no.
According to the San Francisian Agreement, Japan refused a number of territories captured and acquired by it (Kuril, Yu. Sakhalin, Taiwan, etc.), but without the indication of countries that these islands were transmitted. Ryuku's Archipelago (Islace) remained under the administration of the United States. The payment of reparations by Japan's victims of its aggression was envisaged, but without specifying the size of the reparations and the procedure for their payment (it was proposed to solve this issue on the basis of bilateral agreement). A peace treaty, oddly enough, did not provide for the withdrawal of American occupying troops from the Japanese territory. It did not even have constitutional provisions on democratization and military restrictions on Japan. Thus, after 6 years of occupation as a result of the San Francisian conference, Japan has become a subject of the Cold War on the US side. The Japanese bourgeoisie deliberately went to the infringement of his sovereignty in the political area in exchange for American raw materials markets and sales in the field of economic. The Multilateral San Francis Agreement after closing the conference was supplemented by a bilateral Japanese-American security package. In accordance with his articles, the United States took over the security of the "Security of the Far East" and received the right to prevent the "inland riots" in the Japanese territory. The pact was perpetual without the right to one-sided exit of Japan. The United States was not obliged to consult with Tokyo on the use of American troops deployed in Japan, to ensure tasks assigned to them.
