27. "Antique" Second Roman Empire in the X-XIII centuries AD. e. and in the XIII-XVII centuries AD. e In addition to the correspondence described above, the Second Empire and the Holy Empire of the X-XIII centuries contain at their very beginning three major rulers. Actually, both compared empires begin with them.

The harmonious development of ancient Russian culture was interrupted by the Mongol invasion in the middle of the 13th century. Therefore, historians separate the initial period of its evolution (IX-XIII centuries) from all subsequent ones. Life was an inseparable part of culture - everything that surrounded the daily life of ordinary members and nobility of East Slavic society.

Architecture

Like the entire culture of pre-Mongol Russia, the architecture of the country has changed a lot after the adoption of Christianity and the layering of Byzantine traditions on Old Russian ones. Residential buildings of the Eastern Slavs from ancient times were semi-dugouts and log cabins. In the north, in the forest zone, rich traditions of carpentry have developed.

Stone buildings appeared at the end of the 10th century, when Greek architects arrived in the country at the invitation of Prince Vladimir. The most important cultural monuments of pre-Mongol Rus were built in Kiev - "the mother of Russian cities." In 989, the construction of the stone Church of the Tithes began, which became a cathedral, located next to the princely courtyard.

In the future, ancient Russian monumental architecture spread throughout all the East Slavic lands. For example, in the 11th century, St. Sophia Cathedral was consecrated in Novgorod - today it is the main attraction of the city. Also, this building is considered the oldest church built by the Slavs and preserved in Russia. There was also a St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. outstanding monument architecture is built in the Vladimir principality in the XII century.

Fortifications most often were city walls assembled from wooden log cabins (they were also called gorodnitsy). At the top, platforms for the garrison and cracks were set up, from which they fired at the enemy. Towers (vezhi) were additional fortifications. Large cities consisted of outer walls, a citadel and an inner fortress. The walls of princely capitals could be built of stone. Beyond them, the settlements grew, where artisans and other ordinary people settled down.

Painting

Thanks to the influence of Byzantine Orthodoxy, the culture of pre-Mongolian Russia was enriched not only by the traditions of building stone churches, but also by new trends in painting. Such genres as fresco, mosaic and iconography became an integral part of the life of the Eastern Slavs. In painting, the Greek influence turned out to be more durable than in architecture, where an original old Russian style soon arose. This was due to the fact that, for example, there was a strict Christian canon in iconography, from which the masters did not depart for several centuries.

In addition to religious art, there was also secular painting. A vivid example of this genre was the wall paintings created in the towers of the Kiev Sophia. The drawings depicted the family of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise, scenes from the everyday life of the monarch, fantastic birds and animals. Several icons created in the Vladimir-Suzdal land in the 12th century have survived to our times. These artifacts demonstrate in the best possible way what the culture of Russia was like in the pre-Mongolian period. Another unique monument, a medieval fresco, which is the main attraction of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, depicts scenes of the Last Judgment.

The golden age of the culture of pre-Mongolian Russia dates back to the 12th century, when the feudal fragmentation of a formerly united country caused the emergence of regional “schools” in many areas of creative activity. This trend also affected the visual arts. For example, murals were created in Novgorod, imbued with a unique gloomy and harsh spirit. Drawings of formidable archangels and figures of saints are unlike any other example of ancient Russian painting.

Music

Music is another art form that clearly shows what the history of the pre-Mongolian period was, leaving behind a lot of evidence about the song preferences of the Eastern Slavs. Music is characterized by the fact that at all times it has existed inseparably from the life of both the nobility and ordinary people. Family festivities, "games", could not be imagined without songs, dances and playing instruments. Folk works were of a very different nature. These were wedding parables, spring game melodies, laments for dead relatives.

The most gifted performers became professional musicians. Singers of solemn epics and storytellers specialized in the epic genre. Parallel to them, there was a whole world of wandering troupes, consisting of buffoons, who performed in city squares and feasts. The culture of pre-Mongol Russia was multifaceted, and music in this sense did not differ from other types of art. Many buffoons not only sang, but also tried themselves as acrobats, dancers, jugglers and actors, that is, they became actors. Interestingly, the princely authorities often fought against such amateur performances, since the ancient "demonic" songs bore the stamp of long-standing pagan traditions.

Russians included balalaikas, tambourines, psaltery, rattles, domras. And horns and pipes were used not only for singing songs, but also for signaling during hunting or military operations. The squads had their own semblance of "orchestras". For example, such a team raised the morale of the troops during the sieges of the cities of the Volga Bulgarians in 1220.

Like the rest of the culture of pre-Mongol Russia, music received its own Orthodox niche. The texts of church hymns were Byzantine (translated into Slavic). Russia borrowed the liturgical ritual from the Greeks. In the same way, chants appeared.

Folklore

Most of all, Old Russian culture is known for its folklore, which is distinguished by its outstanding diversity and richness. Songs, epics, spells, poetry were its integral components. Paganism gave rise to mythological tales that survived even after the adoption of Christianity. Folklore representations merged with Orthodoxy, which was most reflected in calendar holidays and superstitions.

epic heroic epic- pinnacle in oral folk art. Heroes became the main characters of such works. Heroes such as Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich are known to every child from collections of fairy tales. The epics reflected the wealth that represents the culture of Russia in the pre-Mongolian period. Bogatyrs could be both real historical characters and generalized images. In the tales of fearless heroes, an entire medieval era with its characteristic features (the struggle against steppe nomads, "dashing people", etc.) was deposited.

Writing

Written creativity was the opposite of oral folk art. However, such literature could not appear without the alphabet. That, in turn, leaked to Russia along with Christianity. The Byzantine enlighteners Cyril and Methodius created a special alphabet for the Slavs, which became the foundation for a variety of scripts: Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Macedonian, etc.

The work of the Greek preachers from Thessalonica had the most far-reaching consequences. Without the Cyrillic alphabet, the entire pre-Mongolian would not have developed. This alphabet was used for the complete translation of Orthodox texts. The first literacy schools were founded by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

Novgorod birch bark letters are unique monuments of ancient Russian writing. Most of them were discovered by archaeologists in the 20th century. Birch-bark letters testify that literacy in Russia was not considered the lot of the aristocracy only. Many ordinary citizens were able to write, which was recorded by medieval Novgorod artifacts.

The ancient Cyrillic alphabet was somewhat different from the modern one. It had superscripts and some extra letters. A cardinal reform of the old alphabet took place under Peter I, and it took its final form after the 1917 revolution.

Literature

Along with writing, Russia adopted book culture from Byzantium. The first independent works were religious teachings or sermons. Such can be considered the “Sermon on Law and Grace,” written by Metropolitan Hilarion in the middle of the 11th century.

Chronicle has become much more common genre. They are not only chronicles of events, but also a source of knowledge about what the culture of Ancient Russia was like in the pre-Mongolian period. Nestor is considered the main chronicler of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the XII century, he compiled The Tale of Bygone Years. This collection described the main events of Russian history from the emergence of statehood to 1117. Nestor focused his attention on political events: princely disputes, wars and alliances. The chronicler also left behind a "Reading", in which he dwelled in detail on the biography of the two martyr princes Boris and Gleb.

Prince Vladimir Monomakh was remembered not only as a wise politician and talented commander, but also as an outstanding writer. The ruler of Kiev left to his heirs "Instruction" - a political treatise in which the author explained what an ideal state and effective power should be like. In the book, Monomakh reminded the future princes that the personal interests of politicians should not harm the unity of the state, which is necessary, among other things, to fight against the Polovtsy nomads.

"Instruction" was written at the beginning of the XII century. At the end of the same century, the main work appeared ancient Russian literature- "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It was also devoted to the theme of the fight against the Polovtsians. In the center of the narrative of the poem is the unsuccessful campaign in the steppe of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, who ruled in Novgorod-Seversky.

The threat to peaceful life emanating from the nomads largely influenced the way the culture and life of pre-Mongol Rus became. In the Lay, an unidentified author better than anyone showed how destructive the pagan raids were. Like Monomakh in his Teaching, he emphasized the importance of the unity of the Russian lands in the face of a common danger.

applied arts

Russian craftsmen have long been famous for their unique jewelry making techniques (enamel, filigree, etc.). Similar products were made to order for the boyar and princely nobility. Foreigners admired Russian niello on silver. A variety of products were processed with this mixture: bracelets, crosses, rings, etc.

Kiev masters preferred gilded and silver figures on a black background. Vladimir artisans often made a pure silver background and gold figures. Galicia had its own niello school. Using these examples, applied art once again demonstrates how diverse the culture and life of pre-Mongol Rus were.

The crafts of the village were very different from the crafts of the city. In the countryside, craftsmen used pagan motifs of evil spirits in their ornaments for a long time. Charms and amulets were popular. Most of them were made from the most accessible material - wood. If at first the incantatory elements in applied arts had a distinct magical purpose, then gradually they lost this meaning and became simple patterns. The culture of Russia of the pre-Mongolian period, in short, evolved. With each generation, it gradually changed and became more complicated.

Life and housing

The early Slavic semi-dugouts consisted of a stove, benches and bunks. Each such room became a home for a separate married couple. The prevalence of semi-dugouts among the southern tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs was noted by Arab geographers. Such dwellings began to disappear in the 10th century. This process was associated with the rupture of the patriarchal ties of a small family and the withering away of tribal remnants.

For example, in Kiev, in addition to semi-dugouts, there were log and log dwellings. Wood was a relatively cheap material, almost every urban or rural resident could get it. Accessibility helped to quickly rebuild settlements in case of fires. Fires always led to severe destruction, which, on the other hand, was a noticeable drawback of the tree.

An important part of the princely palaces was the gritnitsa - a spacious room where the retinue gathered at feasts. Studying the arrangement of an aristocratic dwelling is another interesting way to understand what the culture of pre-Mongol Russia was like. Architecture was an indicator of the social position, the position on the social ladder of the owner of the building. It is interesting that in the 12th century, when the state finally collapsed, the former grand ducal grids disappeared - their premises began to be used as prisons.

Cloth

Ordinary peasants, or smerds, dressed in belted shirts-kosovorotkas, tucked into trousers, and high boots. In winter, inexpensive furs were used. At the same time, bear fur coats were considered common people. Belts were narrow and leather, buckles were made of copper. Women, as a rule, wore jewelry necklaces, beads).

A characteristic feature of the retinue, boyar and princely clothes was a cloak. If the peasants wore coarse linen shirts, then the aristocrats wore silk shirts. Princely boots were made of morocco. A mandatory attribute of the monarch was a hat with a fur band. Jewelry of noble people was made from precious stones and gold. For example, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich wore a characteristic pearl earring. The life and culture of pre-Mongol Rus (10th-13th centuries) surprised many foreigners. The winter clothes of the Russian nobility were made from sable furs, which were the most valuable commodity in all European markets.

Food

Since the basis of agriculture in Russia was arable farming, the diet of ordinary people consisted mainly of bread itself and various cereals (barley, wheat, rye and millet). Their importance for the life of the Eastern Slavs was fundamental. So dependent on bread that archaeologists have found children's toys in the shape of bread. Crop failure was considered the greatest disaster, the obligatory consequence of which was widespread pestilence.

The meat food of the townspeople consisted of poultry and livestock. The ancient tradition of eating horse meat has been preserved in the village for a long time. Dairy products, including cottage cheese, were an important part of the home table. The ideological war of the church with paganism also affected the diet. For example, all the same cottage cheese was considered a ritual dish. The priests tried to regulate the diet of their flock with the help of various fasts.

Of the fish on the table, sturgeons were especially valued (it is known that the Novgorod princes had “sturgeons” who collected taxes from sturgeons from fishing catches). Key vegetables were turnips and cabbage. The food culture of pre-Mongol Rus, in short, changed more slowly than all other areas of Slavic life. Traditional seasonings were cinnamon, vinegar, nuts, anise, mint, pepper. The lack of salt could turn into a real national disaster. This product was a favorite object of speculation of merchants.

Basic concepts:

chronicle

Birch bark letters

Main names:

Nestor "The Tale of Bygone Years"

Metropolitan Hilarion "Sermon on Law and Grace"

Daniil Zatochnik "Word", "Prayer"

Vladimir Monomakh "Teaching children"

The concept of culture includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, hands of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, its view of the world, nature, and human relations.

Features of Old Russian culture.

1. Russian culture took shape as the culture of all the Eastern Slavs, at the same time, its own regional features.

2. Influence on Russian culture of neighboring peoples - Ugrofins, Balts, Iranian tribes, other Slavic peoples.

3. the strong influence of Byzantium, which for its time was one of the most cultured states in the world.

4. culture from the very beginning developed as a synthetic, i.e. influenced by various cultural trends, styles, traditions.

5. influence of pagan religion and pagan worldview

6. foundation of Russian culture folk origins and popular perception

7. the influence of the baptism of Russia on culture

Christianity became the state religion of Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of St. Vladimir I (980-1015). Princely power received in the new religion and the church that professed it a reliable support - spiritual and political. The state was strengthened, and intertribal differences were overcome with it. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. All-Russian self-consciousness gradually took shape - an important element of the unity of the ancient Russian people.

The baptism of Russia turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the then world.

The spiritual and cultural significance of the adoption of Christianity is enormous. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Russia from Bulgaria and Byzantium, the number of those who knew Slavic writing and literacy. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Russia was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, church and secular literature, and the education system.

Pagan antiquity preserved above all v oral folk art - folklore (riddles, incantations, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied epics - heroic tales about the defenders of their native land from enemies. Folk storytellers sing the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total, more than 50 main characters act in epics). They turn their appeal to them: “You stand up for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand up for the glorious capital city of Kiev!” It is interesting that in the epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented by the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Russia was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

With the adoption of Christianity began a rapid development of writing . Writing was known in Russia in pre-Christian times (the mention of "features and cuts", the middle of the 1st millennium; information about agreements with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; a clay vessel found near Smolensk with an inscription made in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the enlighteners of the Slavs Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Russia. The oldest handwritten books have come down to us - the Ostromir Gospel (1057) and two Izborniks (collection of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Russia was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark writings (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastic schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.

There was an opinion that the ancient Russian culture was "dumb" - it was believed that it had no original literature. This is not true. Old Russian literature It is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which does not belong to any of the known genres), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.

The oldest of the chronicles that have come down to us - « The Tale of Bygone Years" - created around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions that open The Tale of Bygone Years: “Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began first to reign, and how the Russian land began to eat” - they already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in isolated lands, but all of them, as a model, turned to The Tale of Bygone Years.

From the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre stands out "The Word about Law and Grace", created by Hilarion, the first Russian-born metropolitan, in the middle of the XI century. These are thoughts about power, about the place of Russia in Europe. Wonderful is Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching, written for his sons. The prince must be wise, merciful, just, educated, indulgent and firm in protecting the weak.

The unknown author of the greatest work of ancient Russian literature called for the consent and reconciliation of the princes. « A word about Igor's regiment "(end of the 12th century). The real event - the defeat of the Seversky prince Igor from the Polovtsy (1185-1187) - was only the reason for the creation of the "Word", amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, the power of the figurative system. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if "flying with his mind under the clouds", "prowls through the fields to the mountains" (D.S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Russia, and the princes must forget the strife in order to save her from destruction.

architecture and painting .

Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the XI-XII centuries. (Death Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kiev, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. On it firmly stands the hemisphere of the dome. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple adjoin them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part - semicircular ledges, apses. This is the cross-domed composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. The inner, and often the outer walls of the temple are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints. The first icons came to Russia from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently studying with Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and iconography are more open to the world, cheerful, decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the XII century. the differences between the art schools of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and South Russian lands also became apparent. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated churches in Vladimir (Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on the Market, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Angel of Golden Hair”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Thessalonica” or “Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” painted by the Vladimir-Suzdal masters.

Among the greatest achievements of ancient Russian culture is and arts and crafts, or patterning, as it was called in Russia. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.

The culture of the people is inextricably linked with their way of life, everyday life, just as the way of life of the people, determined by the level of development of the country's economy, is closely connected with cultural processes. The people of Ancient Russia lived both in large cities for their time, numbering tens of thousands of people, and in villages with several dozen households and villages, especially in the north-east of the country, in which two or three households were grouped.

All the testimonies of contemporaries indicate that Kiev was a large and rich city. In terms of its scale, many stone temple buildings, palaces, it competed with other European capitals of that time. No wonder the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, who married in France and arrived in Paris in the 11th century, was surprised by the provinciality of the French capital compared to Kiev, shining on the way from the “Varangians to the Greeks”. Here the golden-domed temples shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich amazed with their grace, St. Sophia Cathedral surprised with its monumentality, wonderful frescoes, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victories of Russian weapons. And not far from the princely palace stood bronze horses, taken by Vladimir from Chersonesus; in the old city there were palaces of prominent boyars, here on the mountain there were also houses of wealthy merchants, other prominent citizens, and the clergy. The houses were decorated with carpets, expensive Greek fabrics. From the fortress walls of the city one could see the white-stone churches of the Caves, Vydubitsky and other Kiev monasteries in the green bushes.

In palaces, rich boyar mansions, life went on - warriors, servants were located here, countless servants crowded. From here came the administration of principalities, cities, villages, here they judged and ordered, tributes and taxes were brought here. Feasts were often held in the hallways, in spacious gardens, where overseas wine and their own “honey” flowed like a river, servants carried huge dishes with meat and game. Women sat at the table on an equal footing with men. Women generally took an active part in management, farming, and other affairs. Many women are known - activists of this kind: Princess Olga, sister of Monomakh Yanka, mother of Daniil Galitsky, wife of Andrei Bogolyubsky and others. At the same time, there was a distribution of food, small money on behalf of the owner to the poor. Such feasts and such distributions were famous throughout Russia during the time of Vladimir I.

The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry, hawk, dog hunting. Races, tournaments, various games were arranged for the common people. An integral part of ancient Russian life, especially in the North, however, as in later times, was a bathhouse.

In a princely-boyar environment, at the age of three, a boy was put on a horse, then he was given to the care and training of a foster (from “nurture” - to educate). At the age of 12, young princes, together with prominent boyar advisers, were sent to manage volosts and cities.

Below, on the banks of the Dnieper, a merry Kiev market was noisy, where, it seems, products and products were sold not only from all over Russia, but from all over the then world, including India and Baghdad.

On the slopes of the mountains to Podol descended various - from good wooden houses to poor dugouts - the dwellings of artisans, working people. At the berths of the Dnieper and Pochaina, hundreds of large and small ships crowded. There were also huge princely multi-oared and multi-sailed boats, and merchant's porters, and brisk, nimble boats.

A motley multilingual crowd scurried through the streets of the city. Boyars and warriors passed here in expensive silk clothes, in cloaks decorated with fur and gold, in epanches, in beautiful leather boots. The buckles of their cloaks were made of gold and silver. Merchants in fine linen shirts and woolen caftans also appeared, and poorer people scurried around in homespun linen shirts and ports. Wealthy women adorned themselves with gold and silver chains, beaded necklaces, which were very loved in Russia, earrings, and other jewelry of gold and silver, finished with enamel, niello. But there were decorations and simpler, cheaper, made from inexpensive stones, simple metal - copper, bronze. They were worn with pleasure by poor people. It is known that even then women wore traditional Russian clothes - sundresses; the head was covered with ubrus (shawls).

Similar temples, palaces, the same wooden houses and the same semi-dugouts stood on the outskirts in other Russian cities, the auctions were just as noisy, and on holidays smart residents filled the narrow streets.

His life, full of work, worries, flowed in modest Russian villages and villages, in log huts, in semi-dugouts with stoves-heaters in the corner. There, people stubbornly fought for existence, plowed up new lands, raised cattle, beekeepers, hunted, defended themselves from "dashing" people, and in the south - from nomads, again and again rebuilt dwellings burned by enemies. Moreover, often plowmen went out into the field armed with spears, clubs, bows and arrows to fight off the Polovtsian patrol. Long winter evenings in the light of torches, women spun, men drank intoxicating drinks, honey, recalled past days, composed and sang songs, listened to storytellers and storytellers of epics, and from wooden shelves, from distant corners, the eyes of little Russians, whose life, full of the same worries and anxieties, was yet to come.

This state is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their faith and independence, their ideals on the edge of the European world. Researchers note such features in ancient Russian culture as synthetic and openness. The original spiritual world was created as a result of the interaction of the heritage and traditions of the Eastern Slavs with the Byzantine culture, and, consequently, the traditions of antiquity. The time of formation, as well as the first flowering of Old Russian culture, falls on the period from the 10th to the first half of the 13th centuries (that is, in the pre-Mongolian period).

Folklore

The traditions of ancient paganism have been preserved, primarily in folklore in songs, fairy tales, proverbs, spells, incantations, and riddles. Epics occupied a special place in the historical memory of the Russian people. They were heroic tales of brave defenders from the enemies of their native land. Folk storytellers sing the exploits of Mikula Selyaninovich, Volga, Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and other heroes (there are more than 50 different main characters in the epics).

They turn to them their call to stand up for the fatherland, for the faith. In the epics, interestingly, the motive of defending the country is supplemented by another one - the defense of the Christian faith. The most important event was her baptism.

Writing in Russia

With the adoption of Christianity, writing began to develop rapidly. Although she was known even earlier. As evidence, we can cite the mention of "features and cuts" dating back to the middle of the first millennium, information about the agreements between Russia and Byzantium, which were drawn up in Russian, an earthen vessel near Smolensk with a Cyrillic inscription (the alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius, the enlighteners of the Slavs at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries).

Orthodoxy brought many liturgical books, secular and religious translated literature to Russia. Handwritten books have come down to us: two "Izborniks" of Prince Svyatoslav, dated 1073 and 1076, the "Ostromir Gospel", referring to 1057. They say that in circulation in the 11-13 centuries there were about 130-140 thousand books that had several hundred titles . By the standards of the Middle Ages in Ancient Russia, the level of literacy was quite high. There is also other evidence. These are those discovered by archaeologists in Veliky Novgorod in the middle of the 20th century, as well as inscriptions on handicrafts and walls of cathedrals, the activities of monastic schools, book collections and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and others, according to which the culture and life of Ancient Russia are being studied today.

There was an opinion that the ancient Russian culture belonged to the "mute", that is, it did not have its own original literature. However, this assumption is incorrect. The literature of Ancient Russia is represented by various genres. These are the lives of the saints, and chronicles, and teachings, and journalism, and travel notes. Let us note here the famous "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which did not belong to any of the genres that existed at that time. Thus, the literature of Ancient Russia is distinguished by a wealth of trends, styles, and images.

Spinning and weaving

The Old Russian state was distinguished not only by its original culture, but also by its way of life. Life is interesting and original. The inhabitants were engaged in various crafts. Among women, the main occupation was spinning and weaving. The necessary amount of fabric had to be woven by Russian women in order to dress their family, as a rule, a large one, and also to decorate the house with towels and tablecloths. It was no coincidence that the spinning wheel was considered by the peasants as a traditional gift, which was kept with love and passed down from generation to generation.

There was a custom in Russia to give beloved girls a spinning wheel of their own work. The more skillfully the master carved and painted it, the more elegant it looked, the more honor he had. Russian girls gathered on winter evenings for gatherings, took spinning wheels with them to show off.

Houses in cities

Customs, like life, in ancient Russian cities had a slightly different character than in villages. There were practically no dugouts here (see photo).

The life of Ancient Russia in the cities reflected various buildings. City dwellers most often erected two-story houses, which consisted of several rooms. The houses of warriors, clergymen, princes, boyars had their own differences. Necessarily, large areas of land were allocated for estates, log cabins were built for servants and artisans, as well as various outbuildings. The life of Ancient Russia was different for different segments of the population, which reflected the types of dwellings. Boyar and princely mansions were real palaces. These houses were decorated with expensive carpets and fabrics.

The Russian people lived in fairly large cities. They numbered tens of thousands of inhabitants. In villages and villages there could be only a few dozen households. Life was preserved in them longer than in cities.

Houses in the villages

Residential areas, along which various trade routes passed, had a higher standard of living. Peasants lived, as a rule, in small houses. In the south, semi-dugouts were common, the roofs of which were often covered with earth.

In Russia, the northern huts were two-story, high, with small windows (there could be more than five). Sheds, pantries and canopies were attached to the side of the dwelling. They were all usually under the same roof. This type of dwelling was very convenient for the northern harsh winters. Many elements of the houses were decorated with geometric ornaments.

Interior of peasant huts

In Ancient Russia it was quite simple. The huts in the villages usually did not look rich. Interior peasant huts was cleaned quite strictly, but smartly. In front of the icons in the front corner there was a large table, which was intended for all members of this family. Ancient household items in Russia also included wide benches that stood along the walls. They were decorated with carved edging. Most often, there were shelves above them, which were intended for storing dishes. Household items of Ancient Russia included a postavets (northern locker), which was usually supplemented with elegant painting depicting flowers, birds, horses, as well as pictures depicting allegorically the seasons.

The table on holidays was covered with red cloth. Carved and painted utensils were placed on it, as well as lights for the torch. Ancient Russia was famous for woodworking. They made a variety of utensils. The most beautiful were ancient Russian ladles of various sizes and shapes. Some of them contained several buckets in volume. The ladles intended for drinking were often boat-shaped. Their handles were decorated with horse heads or carved ducks. The ladles were also generously supplemented with carvings and paintings.

Buckets-ducks were called ladles that had the shape of a duck. Turned vessels resembling a ball were called brothers. Beautiful salt shakers, shaped like horses or birds, were carved by wood craftsmen. Beautiful spoons and bowls were also made. Everything related to the life of Ancient Russia was usually made of wood: cradles for children, mortars, bowls, baskets, furniture. The craftsmen who created the furniture not only thought about convenience, but also about beauty. These things certainly had to please the eye, turn even the hardest work of the peasants into a holiday.

Clothing of various segments of the population

Clothing could also identify different segments of the population. Peasants and artisans, both men and women, wore shirts that were made from homespun cloth. In addition to shirts, men wore pants, and women wore skirts. Ordinary people wore ordinary fur coats in winter.

In form, the clothes of noble people were often similar to peasant clothes, but in quality, of course, they were completely different. Such clothes were created from expensive fabrics. Often cloaks were made of oriental fabrics embroidered with gold. Winter coats were sewn only from valuable furs. Peasants and townspeople also wore different shoes. Only wealthy residents could afford to buy boots or pistons (shoes). The princes also wore boots that were richly decorated with inlays. Peasants could afford to make or purchase only bast shoes that survived in Russian culture until the 20th century.

Feasts and hunting in Ancient Russia

The hunting and feasts of the ancient Russian nobility were known to the whole world. During such events, the most important state affairs were often decided. The inhabitants of Ancient Russia celebrated victories in campaigns nationwide and magnificently. Honey and overseas wine flowed like a river. Servants served huge platters of meat and game. These feasts were necessarily visited by posadniks and elders from all cities, as well as by a huge number of people. It is difficult to imagine the life of the inhabitants of Ancient Russia without plentiful feasts. The tsar feasted with the boyars and retinue on the high gallery of his palace, and the tables for the people were located in the courtyard.

Falconry, dog and hawk hunting were considered the pastime of the rich. Various games, races, tournaments were built for the common people. The life of Ancient Russia as an integral part, especially in the north, also included a bathhouse.

Other features of Russian life

Children in the boyar-princely environment were not raised independently. Boys at the age of three were put on a horse, after which they were given to the care and training of a nursery teacher (that is, a teacher). Young princes at the age of 12 went to govern volosts and cities. Wealthy families in the 11th century began to teach both girls and boys to read and write. Kiev market was a favorite place for ordinary and noble people. Here they sold products and products from all over the world, including India and Baghdad. The ancient people of Russia were very fond of bargaining.