History and typology of the diary genre To write is to read yourself. Max Frisch The origins and ups of the genre in Russia. A literary diary grows from a ship's journal or prison diary, travel or scientific records. Can be long lasting, reflecting all life, like

Continued debriefing. Classics of the genre Here is one of the most classic things, almost all fantasy lovers know it: the famous series about Pern. So, Pern. “Part One: SEARCH Chapter 1 Beat the drum, blow the horns - The black hour comes. Flame rushes, blaze

Continuation of the genus So that life does not stop ... The main task of any organism is to leave behind offspring. Reptiles solve this problem in a fundamentally different way than amphibians. As completely land animals, they only breed on land,

The methodology of a systematic approach to art is clearly traced in the works of M.S.Kagan. Kagan turned to the study of the place and functions of art in society and culture in general and among various forms of culture (religion, morality, philosophy, science), art as a special type of activity in the system of human activity, the place of various types of art in the system of 711 historical development of culture, systems of types, genera and genres of art, artistic activity as a system of interconnection of artistic creativity, the existence of artistic works and artistic perception, artistic culture as a system of institutions for the production, functioning and consumption of artistic values. Without denying that art is capable of deeply penetrating and reproducing reality, Kagan points out at the same time that the artistic image is also its assessment, which expresses the artist's attitude to the world, and its transformation with the help of creative imagination, from which it follows that art cannot be a simple copy of the surrounding reality. In the artistic world, created by the imagination of the creator, the objective is combined with the subjective, the spiritual with the material, the class with the national, the individual with the universal. Possessing epistemological, axiological (value), creative aspects, art carries to a person artistic information about the world and about itself, therefore it is included in the world of human communication and acts as a specific artistic language1. Expanding studies of the structural complexity of the organization of a work of art have shown that it can converge in some relations with science, in another - with morality, in the third - with technical constructions, in the fourth - with language, be a mirror of culture and at the same time maintain its sovereignty712 713. A number of studies have shown that art is a powerful means of introducing individual human experience into the universal one714. Summing up the results of the 60-70s, we can say that much of what we find in Russian aesthetics in the following decades originates from that time. The formation of Marxist axiology as an independent science was of great importance for aesthetics. After the theory of value was recognized as an integral part of Marxist philosophy, the debate about beauty subsided. It became impossible to accuse the aesthetics of subjectivity who defined beauty as a value, that is, correlated it with taste, with ideals, norms emanating from the subject. The axiological aspect was included on an equal footing with the epistemological aspect in art. The first edition of L. Vygotsky's book "The Psychology of Art", written 40 years before its publication in 1965, gave impetus to the beginning of psychological research in aesthetics, which very quickly grew into a complex - with the participation of many sciences (natural and humanitarian) - analysis artistic activities. Symposia on the comprehensive study of artistic creativity met first in Leningrad, then in other cities *. The beginning of the development of a semiotic analysis of art can be dated to the same moment. In Tartu, under the guidance of a graduate of the Leningrad University and closely associated with the Leningrad philological school prof. Yu. Lotman's school began to work on the structural study of sign systems, which spread far beyond art, literally to all cultural phenomena 715 716. The birth of sociology, first as an autonomous philosophical science, then created its "daughter" branches, in including the sociology of art, divided into theoretical717 and applied718. At the same time, research on the history of Russian and world aesthetic thought developed on a broad front. There were published anthologies on the history of aesthetic thought and individual works of the classics of world aesthetics in the series “History of aesthetics in monuments and documents”, numbering dozens of volumes, works on the history of aesthetics written from a Marxist standpoint were created1. An important event in scientific life was the publication of the monumental multivolume "History of Ancient Aesthetics" by A.F. Losev. The ideas of information theory, cybernetics, and mathematical methods of analysis began to penetrate into aesthetics, and a new science emerged - the art of metrics. 719 720 not in everything allowed the free deployment of new beginnings. Nevertheless, it was no longer possible to block the road to innovative ideas. Those provisions of the Marxist aesthetic theory that have a scientific meaning turned out to be in demand in the problem field of post-Marxist philosophy, the beginning of the official existence of which can be conditionally dated to the turn of the 80-90s. On the whole, as an ideological doctrine, Marxist-Leninist aesthetics has remained in the past.

The category of genre in the analysis of a work of fiction is somewhat less important than the category of genus, but in some cases, knowledge of the genre nature of the work can help in the analysis, indicate which aspects should be paid attention to.

In literary studies, genres are called groups of works within literary genres, united by common formal, content or functional features.

It should be said right away that not all works have a clear genre nature. Thus, in a genre sense, Pushkin's poem "Night haze lies on the hills of Georgia ...", Lermontov's "The Prophet", plays by Chekhov and Gorky, "Vasily Terkin" by Tvardovsky and many other works are indefinable in the genre sense.

But even in those cases when a genre can be defined quite unambiguously, such a definition does not always help the analysis, since genre structures are often identified by a secondary feature that does not create a special originality of content and form. This applies mainly to lyric genres, such as elegy, ode, message, epigram, sonnet, etc.

In epic genres, it is primarily the opposition of genres in terms of their volume that matters. The existing literary tradition distinguishes here genres of large (novel, epic), medium (story) and small (story) volume, however, in typology, only two positions are realistically distinguished, since the story is not an independent genre, gravitating in practice or to the story (“Belkin "Pushkin), or to the novel (his" The Captain's Daughter ").

But the distinction between large and small volume seems essential, and above all for the analysis of a small genre - the story. Yu.N. Tynyanov rightly wrote: "The calculation for a large form is not the same as for a small one." The small volume of the story dictates the peculiar principles of poetics, specific artistic techniques. First of all, this is reflected in the properties of literary depiction.

The story is highly characterized by the "economy mode", it cannot have long descriptions, therefore, it is characterized not by details-details, but by details-symbols, especially in describing a landscape, portrait, interior. Such a detail acquires increased expressiveness and, as a rule, refers to the creative imagination of the reader, suggests co-creation, speculation.

According to this principle, Chekhov, the master of artistic detail, built his descriptions; Let us recall, for example, his textbook depiction of a moonlit night: “In descriptions of nature, one must grasp at small details, grouping them in such a way that, after reading, when you close your eyes, a picture is given.

For example, you will get a moonlit night if you write that a glass from a broken bottle flashed like a bright star on the mill dam and a black shadow of a dog or a wolf rolled like a ball ”(Letter to Al.P. Chekhov dated May 10, 1886). Here the details of the landscape are conjectured by the reader based on the impression of one or two dominant symbolic details.

The same happens in the field of psychologism: for a writer it is important here not so much to reflect the mental process in its entirety as to recreate the leading emotional tone, the atmosphere of the hero's inner life at the moment. The masters of this psychological story were Maupassant, Chekhov, Gorky, Bunin, Hemingway, and others.

In the composition of the story, as in any small form, the ending is very important, which is either in the nature of a plot denouement or an emotional ending. Also noteworthy are those endings that do not resolve the conflict, but only demonstrate its insolubility; so-called "open" finals, as in "The Lady with the Dog" by Chekhov.

One of the genre varieties of the story is the short story. The novella is an action-packed narration, the action in it develops quickly, dynamically, strives for a denouement, which contains the whole meaning of what was told: first of all, with its help, the author gives an understanding of the life situation, makes a "judgment" on the characters depicted.

In short stories, the plot is compressed, the action is concentrated. The rapidly developing plot is characterized by a very economical system of characters: there are usually just as many of them as needed so that the action could develop continuously. Episodic characters are introduced (if introduced at all) only to give impetus to the plot action and then immediately disappear.

In the novel, as a rule, there are no subplots, author's deviations; from the past of the heroes only what is absolutely necessary for understanding the conflict and the plot is reported. Descriptive elements that do not advance the action are minimized and appear almost exclusively at the beginning: later, towards the end, they will interfere, inhibiting the development of the action and distracting attention.

When all these tendencies are brought to their logical conclusion, the story acquires a pronounced structure of an anecdote with all its main features: very small volume, unexpected, paradoxical "shock" ending, minimal psychological motivation for actions, lack of descriptive moments, etc. The anecdote story was widely used by Leskov, early Chekhov, Maupassant, O'Henry, D. London, Zoshchenko and many other novelists.

A novel, as a rule, is based on external conflicts, in which contradictions collide (set-up), develop and, having reached the highest point in development and struggle (culmination), are more or less rapidly resolved. In this case, the most important thing is that the colliding contradictions must and can be resolved in the course of the development of the action.

For this, contradictions must be sufficiently definite and manifested, the heroes must have some psychological activity in order to strive at all costs to resolve the conflict, and the conflict itself must at least in principle yield to immediate resolution.

Let us consider from this angle the story of V. Shukshin "The Hunt to Live". A young city guy comes into the hut to the forester Nikitich. It turns out that the guy escaped from prison.

Suddenly, the district authorities come to Nikitich to hunt, Nikitich tells the guy to pretend to be asleep, puts the guests to bed and falls asleep himself, and wakes up to find that "Kolya the professor" has left, taking Nikitich's gun and his tobacco pouch with him. Nikitich rushes in pursuit, overtakes the guy and takes his gun from him. But the guy generally likes Nikitich, he is sorry to let him go alone, in winter, unaccustomed to the taiga and without a gun.

The old man leaves a gun for the guy so that when he reaches the village he will hand it over to Nikitich's godfather. But when they had already gone each in their own direction, the guy shoots Nikitich in the back of the head, because “it will be better this way, father. More reliable. "

The clash of characters in the conflict of this novel is very sharp and clear. The incompatibility, the opposition of Nikitich's moral principles - principles based on kindness and trust in people - and the moral norms of "Kolya the professor", who "wants to live" for himself, is "better and more reliable" - also for himself, - the incompatibility of these moral attitudes intensifies in the course of the action and is embodied in a tragic, but inevitable, according to the logic of characters, denouement.

Let's note the special significance of the denouement: it not only formally completes the plot action, but exhausts the conflict. The author's assessment of the depicted characters, the author's understanding of the conflict are concentrated precisely in the denouement.

The major genres of the epic - the novel and the epic - differ in their content, primarily in terms of problems. The substantive dominant in the epic is the national one, and in the novel - the novelistic problematic (adventurous or ideological and moral).

It is, accordingly, extremely important for a novel to determine which of the two types it belongs to. The poetics of the novel and the epic are also constructed depending on the genre dominant content. The epic gravitates towards plot, the image of the hero in it is built as the quintessence of the typical qualities inherent in a people, ethnic group, class, etc.

In the adventure novel, the plot also clearly predominates, but the image of the hero is already constructed in a different way: he is emphatically free from class, corporate and other ties with the environment that gave birth to him. In an ideological and moral novel, the dominant style will almost always be psychologism and discord.

Over the past century and a half, a new genre of large volume has developed in the epic - the epic novel, which combines the properties of these two genres. This genre tradition includes such works as "War and Peace" by Tolstoy, "Quiet Flows the Don" by Sholokhov, "Walking through the Torments" by A. Tolstoy, "The Living and the Dead" by Simonov, "Doctor Zhivago" by Pasternak and some others.

An epic novel is characterized by a combination of national and ideological and moral problems, but not a simple summation of them, but an integration in which the ideological and moral search for a personality is correlated primarily with the people's truth.

The problem of the epic novel becomes, as Pushkin put it, "the fate of man and the fate of the people" in their unity and interdependence; critical events for the entire ethnos give the hero's philosophical search a special urgency and urgency, the hero is faced with the need to determine his position not just in the world, but in national history.

In the field of poetics, the epic novel is characterized by a combination of psychology with plot, a compositional combination of general, medium and close-up shots, the presence of many plot lines and their interweaving, author's digressions.

Esin A.B. The principles and techniques of the analysis of a literary work. - M., 1998.

Analysis of a painting in fine arts lessons. From work experience

Gaponenko Natalya Vladimirovna, head of the RMO of teachers of fine arts and MHK Novoilinsky district, teacher of fine arts MBNOU "Gymnasium No. 59", g. Novokuznetsk

“Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies human life. But understanding works of art is far from easy. It is necessary to learn this - to study for a long time, all your life ... Always, in order to understand works of art, you need to know the conditions of creativity, the goals of creativity, the personality of the artist and the era. The viewer, listener, reader should be armed with knowledge, information ... And I especially want to emphasize the importance of details. Sometimes the little thing allows us to penetrate the main thing. How important it is to know why this or that thing was painted or painted! "

D.S. Likhachev

Art is one of the important factors in the formation of a person's personality, the basis for the formation of a person's attitude to the phenomena of the surrounding world, therefore, the development of skills for the perception of art becomes one of the essential tasks of artistic education.

One of the goals of studying the subject "Fine Arts" is the development of an artistic image, that is, the ability to understand the main thing in a work of art, to distinguish the means of expression that the artist uses to characterize this image. Here the important task of developing the moral and aesthetic qualities of a person is carried out through the perception of works of fine art.
Let's try to consider the method of teaching the perception and analysis of pictures

Methodology for teaching the perception and analysis of paintings

The methods that are used to introduce students to painting are divided into verbal, visual and practical.

Verbal methods.

1. Questions:

a) understanding the content of the picture;

b) to identify mood;

c) to identify means of expression.

In general, the questions encourage the child to peer into the picture, to see its details, but not to lose the integral sense of the work of art.

2. Conversation:

a) as an introduction to the lesson;

b) a conversation about the painting;

c) the final conversation.

In general, the conversation method is aimed at developing the ability of students to express their thoughts, so that in the conversation (the teacher's story) the child can get speech samples for this.

3. The teacher's story.

Visual:

Excursions (virtual tour);

Examination of reproductions, albums with paintings by famous artists;

Comparison (pictures by mood, means of expression).

Practical:

Writing work on the painting;

Preparation of reports, abstracts;

In fine arts lessons, it is advisable to combine different methods of working with works of art, focusing on one method or another, taking into account the preparedness of the students

Working with a painting

AA Lyublinskaya believes that the perception of a child's picture should be taught, gradually leading him to an understanding of what is depicted on it. This requires the recognition of individual objects (people, animals); highlighting the poses and locations of each figure in the general plan of the picture; establishing connections between the main characters; highlighting details: lighting, background, facial expressions.

S. L. Rubinshtein, G. T. Hovsepyan, who studied the issues of perception of the picture, believe that the nature of children's answers to its content depends on a number of factors. First of all, from the content of the picture, the proximity and accessibility of its plot, from the experience of children, from their ability to consider the drawing.

Working with a painting involves several directions:

1) Learning the basics of visual literacy.

In the classroom, students get acquainted with the types of fine arts, genres, with the means of expressing the types of art. Students are taught the skills of using the terminology of art: shadow, partial shade, contrast, reflex, etc. through dictionary work, terms on art history are introduced, the laws of composition are studied.

2) Learning about the life and work of the artist.

Preparation of students for active perception of the picture is most often carried out in the process of conversation. The content of the conversation is usually information about the artist, the history of the painting. Tracing the artist's life, it is advisable to dwell on such episodes that influenced the formation of his beliefs, gave direction to his work.

The forms of reporting information about the life and work of the artist are varied : teacher's story, science film, sometimes student presentations are assigned.

3) Use of additional information.

The perception of the picture is facilitated by appeal to literary works, the subject of which is close to the content of the picture. The use of literary works prepares the ground for a deeper perception and understanding by children of the painting of the acquaintance with the plot of the myth.

Of great importance for understanding the plot of the picture is historical situation in the country under study, in a specific time period, the stylistic features of art.

4) Examination of the picture.

The ability to look at a picture is one of the necessary conditions for the development of perception, observation. In the process of looking at the picture, a person sees first of all that in tune with him, his thoughts and feelings... The student, examining the picture, pays attention to what worries him, occupies, what is new, unexpected for him. At this moment, the attitude of students to the picture is determined, and their individual understanding of the artistic image is formed.

5) Analysis of the painting.

The purpose of painting analysis is to deepen the initial perception, to help students understand the figurative language of art.

At the first stages, the analysis of the work is carried out in the process of a conversation or a story by the teacher, gradually students conduct the analysis independently. Conversation helps children to see, feel and comprehend the work of art more subtly, deeper.

Methods for analyzing a painting

A. Melik-Pashayev's methodology. (Source: Magazine "Art in school" No. 6 1993 A. Melik-Poshaev "A festive day" or "A terrible holiday" (On the problem of understanding the author's intention)

Questions about the picture:

1. How would you name this picture?

2.Do you like the painting or not?

3. Tell about this picture so that someone who does not know it can get an idea of \u200b\u200bit.

4. What feelings, mood does this picture evoke in you?

7. Would you like to add or change something in your answer to the first question?

8. Go back to the answer to the second question. Is your rating the same or has it changed? Why do you rate the picture like that?

2 ... Sample questions for analyzing a work of art

Emotional level:

What impression does the work make?

What mood is the author trying to convey?

What sensations can a viewer experience?

What is the nature of the piece?

How do the scale, format, horizontal, vertical or diagonal arrangement of parts, and the use of certain colors in the picture help the emotional impression of a work?

Subject level:

What (or who) is shown in the picture?

Highlight the main thing from what you saw.

Try to explain why exactly this seems to you the main thing?

By what means does the artist highlight the main thing?

How are objects arranged in the work (subject composition)?

How are the main lines drawn in the work (linear composition)?

Story level:

Try to retell the plot of the picture ..

What can a hero, a heroine of a painting, do (or say) if she comes to life?

Symbolic level:

Are there objects in the work that symbolize something?

Are the composition of the work and its main elements symbolic: horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circle, oval, color, cube, dome, arch, vault, wall, tower, spire, gesture, posture, clothing, rhythm, timbre, etc. .?

What is the title of the piece? How does it compare with its plot and symbolism?

What do you think the author of the work wanted to convey to people?

Analysis plan of a painting. Writing is a feeling.

1.Author, title of the picture
2. Artistic style / direction (realism, impressionism, etc.)
3. Easel painting (picture) or monumental (fresco, mosaic), material (for easel painting): oil paints, gouache, etc.
4. Genre of a work of art (portrait, still life, historical, everyday, marina, mythological, landscape, etc.)
5.Painting plot (as depicted). Story.
6. Means of expressiveness (color, contrast, composition, visual center)

7. Personal impression (feelings, emotions) - the technique of "immersion" in the plot of the picture.

8. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe plot of the picture. What the author "wanted to say", why he painted the picture.
9. Its name of the picture.

Examples of children's works on the perception and analysis of paintings.

The composition is a sensation based on the painting by Ilya Repin “Home. Hero of the last war "

Ilya Repin painted the painting “Home. Hero of the Past War "most likely in the post-war period, more precisely after the First World War.
The artistic direction in which the picture is painted, realism. Easel painting, the artist used oil paints for his work. Genre portrait.
Repin's painting depicts a young man who has seen a lot. He returns home to his relatives and friends, a serious, slightly sad expression can be seen on his face. The eyes are full of melancholy sadness. He wanders across the seemingly endless field, which remembers the gunshots and every person who falls on him. He walks in the awareness that many whom he loved so much are no more. And only crows, like ghosts, remind of the lost friends.

Repin chose cold colors of muted tones as means of expressiveness; many shadows in the picture convey the volume of objects and space. The composition is static, the person himself is the visual center of the composition, his gaze directed at us attracts the viewer's eye.

When I look at the picture, there is sadness and the realization that this life is different from what it was before. I feel a feeling of frost on my body, a feeling of calm, chilly weather.

I believe that the author wanted to show how people who have gone through the war become. No, of course, they have not changed outwardly beyond recognition: the body, proportions have remained the same, those who are lucky do not have external injuries. But the faces will no longer have the old emotions, serene smile. The horrors of war that this rather young man lived through were forever imprinted on his soul.

I would call the painting "The Lone Soldier" or "The Road Home" ... But where is he going? Who is waiting for him?,.

Output: thus, the perception of a work of art is a complex mental process that involves the ability learn, understand the picture, express your thought competently using professional artistic terms. But this is only a cognitive act. A prerequisite for artistic perception is emotional coloring perceived, an expression of attitude towards him. Essay - feeling allows you to see the judgments of children, which testify to the ability not only to feel the beautiful, but also to appreciate.

We look at the world with our own eyes, but artists taught us to see it. S. Maugham.

Symbolism and modernity in Russian art of the early XX century. PETROV-VODKIN Kuzma Sergeevich (1878-1939) "Bathing the Red Horse"

The events of October 1917, the first post-revolutionary years - this time has become history and even a legend for us. Perceiving it differently than our fathers and grandfathers, we strive to feel and comprehend the era, its pathos and drama, plunging into its art, bypassing the categorical statements of politicians.

In one of the books published in 1926 (Shcherbakov N.M. Art of the USSR. - New Russia in art. M., Publishing house "AHRR", 1926), the idea was expressed: "... in such crystals - a picture, a song , a novel, a statue - a monument - not only the deathly, mirror-like shadow of life is stored for a long time, but also a part of the energy, which for centuries retains its charge for those who approach it ""

Kuzma Sergeevich Petrov - Vodkin (1878 - 1939), a representative of the Russian avant-garde, was born in the city of Khvalynsk, Saratov province, into the family of a shoemaker. He studied for a short time in Samara, St. Petersburg, since 1897 at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under AE Arkhipov and VA Serov. A trip to Italy and North Africa, studying at the Ashbe school in Munich and Paris studios, acquaintance with European art significantly expanded the artistic horizons of Petrov - Vodkin. The early period of the artist's work is marked by a symbolist orientation (Dream, 1910), in which the influence of Vrubel and Borisov - Musatov is guessed. Petrov - Vodkin became famous in Russia in 1912, when his painting Bathing a Red Horse was exhibited at the World of Art exhibition, which impressed the audience with its daring originality. This work of the artist marks an important milestone in his work: the symbolism of his artistic language finds a plastic-figurative expression in the traditions of icon painting, color - in the tricolor system: red, blue, yellow. The artist seeks to discover in man the manifestation of the eternal laws of the world order, to make a concrete image the personification of the connection of cosmic forces. Hence the monumentality of the style and the "spherical perspective", i.e. perception of any fragment from a cosmic point of view, and understanding of space as "one of the main storytellers of the picture."

Bathing of a red horse.

On a huge canvas, an almost flat red horse, occupying a good half of the surface of the entire canvas (and it is large: 160 x 180 cm), a naked boy painted in orange and yellow paint sits. With one hand he is holding on to the bridle, with the other he is leaning on a huge red horse rushing forward, deliberately turning towards us, as if posing. The horse does not fit into the picture frame, but rests against its edges. The eye shines feverishly, the nostrils flutter, but a man holds it back. Not a giant, but a fragile young man, a teenager easily sits on a horse, trustingly placing his hand on an elastic croup, easily and freely controls a horse, clearly standing out against the blue-green background of a reservoir in which two more boys are engaged with their horses.

What is the meaning of such a strange image? The fact that the essence is not in the everyday plot (art does not deal with everyday life) of bathing horses (this is evident from the name - there are no red horses) is clear: the meaning of the picture is encrypted, you must be able to read it. According to one of the modern interpretations, very widespread, the horse is perceived as a symbol of Russia, personifying its beauty and strength, it is associated with Blok's image of the "steppe mare" racing at a gallop, in which the past of Russia, and its modern, and the eternal will remain forever. Another interpretation, even more generalized, expressed by art critic D. Sarabyanov: "This is a dream of beauty, not everyday, but unexpected, a feeling of awakening, gathering energy before future trials, this is a premonition of great events, changes."

The vagueness of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe picture was confirmed by Petrov-Vodkin himself, who said two years after its creation, when the World War began, that “unexpectedly for him, a thought flashed across the board - that's why I wrote“ Bathing the Red Horse ”(Rusakov Yu.A. Petrov - Vodkin. Art., 1975.) Although in recent years he has already been ironic about this, rejecting what has been said, emphasizing his unwillingness to tie his picture to any specific historical event: “When the war broke out, our witty art critics said:“ Here which meant "Bathing the red horse", and when the revolution took place, our poets wrote: "This is what the red horse means" - this is the holiday of the revolution "(quoted from: Mochalov L.V. Petrov - Vodkin - L.," Aurora., 1971.) The vagueness of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe work, the vagueness of the premonitions contained in it are a true expression of the state of mind not only of Petrov - Vodkin, but of the intelligentsia in general of the first two decades of the 20th century. Experiences, aspirations, dreams of people seemed to materialize in the symbolic image of a red horse. They are not separately everyday, but tall, huge, eternal, like an eternal dream of a wonderful future. To express this state, a special artistic language was needed.

Petrov-Vodkin's innovation is based on his comprehension of the art of the modern and previous eras, primarily the work of the Impressionists and Matisse, and the traditions of ancient Russian art (remember at least the famous icon of the Novgorod school of the 15th century. The Miracle of George about the Dragon), , spiritual, pure morality. A clearly delineated silhouette of objects, locally painted surfaces, rejection of the laws of perspective and the depiction of volumes, a special use of color - the famous "tricolor" of Petrov-Vodkin are present in this canvas, which is a landmark for the artist, revealing the originality of his artistic language. In folk tales, there is also the image of a rider on a Red horse. The word "red" in Russian has a wide meaning: red is beautiful, which means not only beautiful, but also kind; red is a maiden.

The artist's active appeal to the traditions of icon painting is not accidental. His first teachers were the icon painters of his native Khvalynsk, located on the high Volga bank.

Everything in the picture is built on contrasts. Red sounds alarming, inviting. And like a dream, like a forest distance - blue, and like a sunbeam - yellow. Colors do not collide, do not oppose, but harmonize.

"The main sign of the new era is movement, the mastery of space," the artist argued. How to convey this? How to master space in painting? Petrov - Vodkin tried to convey the infinity of the world, using the so-called. "Spherical perspective". In contrast to the linear, open by Renaissance artists, where the point of view is fixed, the spherical perspective presupposes a plurality, mobility of points of view, the ability to consider the depicted object from different angles, allowing to convey the dynamics of action, a variety of angles of vision. Spherical perspective determined the nature of the composition of paintings by Petrov - Vodkin and determined the rhythm of the picture. The horizontal planes received roundness, like the spherical surface of the earth, planetary.

The vertical axes diverge fan-shaped, obliquely, and this also brings it closer to the sensation of outer space.

The colors of Petrov - Vodkin are conventional: the color planes are local, closed. But, possessing a subtle, innate sense of color, the artist, on the basis of his theory of color perspective, created works, an emotionally imaginative system, which was accurately and fully revealed by the ideological concept, the pathos of the picture.

Petrov-Vodkin accepts the revolutionary era in Russia with his characteristic philosophical wisdom. He writes: “In the chaos of construction, everyone who is not absorbed into personal scores ... rings the alarm bell: Life will be wonderful! A wonderful life will be! " (Quoted from: Kamensky A. A. Romantic montage. M., Soviet artist. 1989)

Favorite themes of Petrov-Vodkin's work, especially in the difficult 20s, are the themes of motherhood and childhood, etc.:

"1918 in Petrograd" - "Petrograd Madonna"

Portrait of Anna Akhmatova

Self-portrait

Still life with blue ashtray

Still life with a mirror

Still life with letters

Pink still life. Apple tree branch

Morning still life

and large monumental canvases, in which the result of his understanding of the past and the present

"Death of the Commissioner"

After the artist's death, his work was erased from Soviet art and only in the 1960s was it rediscovered and realized.

Literature

1. Emohanova L.G. World Art. Tutorial. M., 1998.

2. We read and talk about Russian artists. Textbook on the Russian language for foreign students. Ed. Etc. Chilikin. M., 1989.

3. Parkhomenko I.T. History of world and domestic culture. M., 2002.

4. Sokolova M.V. World culture and art. M., 2004.

5. Ostrovsky G. Stories about Russian painting. M., 1989.

6. Rapatskaya L.A. Russian artistic culture. M., 1998.

Formation of realism in Russian music. MIKHAIL IVANOVICH GLINKA (1804 - 1857)

Opera "LIFE FOR THE KING"

"The people create music, and we, composers, only arrange it." M.I. Glinka.

MI Glinka entered the history of music as the founder of Russian national musical classics. He summed up all the best that was achieved by Russian composers of previous periods (Varlamov, Alyabyev, Verstovsky, Gurilev, Dubyansky, Kozlovsky, etc.), raised Russian music to a new level and gave it a leading role in world musical culture.

The art of M.I. Glinka, like the work of A.S. Pushkin and other figures of his era, was born of the social upsurge in Russia that arose in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 and the movement of the Decembrists in 1825.

MI Glinka became the first classic of Russian music because he was able to deeply and comprehensively express in his work the progressive ideas put forward by this social upsurge. The main ones are the ideas of patriotism and nationality. The main content of Glinka's work is the image of the people, the embodiment of their thoughts and feelings.

Before Glinka, in Russian music people were portrayed only in their daily life: in everyday life - their rest, fun. Glinka for the first time in Russian music portrayed the people as an active force, embodied the idea that it is the people who are the real bearer of patriotism.

Glinka was the first to create full-fledged musical images of heroes from the people who go to the feat for the sake of their native country. In such images as Ivan Susanin, Ruslan and others, Glinka summarizes the best spiritual qualities of the entire people: love for the Motherland, valor, spiritual nobility, purity and sacrifice.

Truly embodying the most essential, typical traits of heroes and the entire people, Glinka reaches a new, highest degree of REALISM.

In her work, Glinka relies on a folk song basis: “The people create music; and we, the artists, just arrange it. " The closeness, inner kinship with folk art is felt everywhere in Glinka: in everyday episodes (like other composers before Glinka), and in heroic and lyric ones.

Glinka is Pushkin in music. Pushkin A.S. just like Glinka, he introduced folk images, the folk language into Russian literature.

Glinka possessed all the achievements of composing. He studied the experience of foreign composers - Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, while he remained a deeply national, Russian composer.

The opera "A Life for the Tsar" is the first example of a heroic folk musical drama in the history of music. It is based on a historical fact - the patriotic feat of a peasant from the village of Domnino, near Kostroma, Ivan Osipovich Susanin, committed at the beginning of 1613. Moscow was already liberated from the Polish invaders, but the invaders' detachments were still roaming the Russian land. One of these detachments wanted to capture Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, who lived near the village of Domnino. But Susanin, whom the enemies wanted to make their guide, pretending to agree, led a detachment of Poles into a deep forest and destroyed them, dying in the process himself.

Glinka in his opera embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bthe greatness of the feat accomplished in the name of the motherland and people. The opera's drama is based on the conflict of two forces - the Russian people and the Polish gentry. Each action of the opera is one of the stages in the disclosure of this conflict, which is revealed not only in the plot of the opera, but also in its music. The musical characteristics of Russian peasants and Poles are opposite: for Russians, SONGS are characteristic - for Poles, DANCES. Socio-psychological characteristics are also opposite: the Polish invaders are accompanied by sometimes careless, sometimes warlike music of "Polonaise" and "Mazurka". The Russians are depicted with calm and courageous songs of the folk - peasant or soldier style. By the end of the opera, "Polish" music loses its warlike spirit and sounds depressed. Russian music, more and more filled with strength, is pouring out into the mighty jubilant hymn "Glory".

The heroes of the opera from among the Russian peasants are Susanin, Antonida (daughter), Vanya (adopted son), warrior Sobinin. They are individual and at the same time embody one of the sides of the character of their people: Susanin - wise greatness; Sobinin - courage; Antonida - cordiality. The integrity of the characters makes the heroes of the opera the embodiment of the ideals of the human personality.

The second act of the opera - "Polish Act" - "Polonaise" and "Mazurka" - typical Polish dances, distinguished by the brightness of the national character. "Polonaise" sounds proudly, ceremoniously and belligerent. (Hearing).

"Mazurka" is bravura, with a sweeping melody. The music paints a portrait of the Polish gentry, covering greed, arrogance, and vanity with an external splendor. (Hearing).

Both "Polonaise" and "Mazurka" appear not as peasant, but as knightly dances.

Glinka for the first time attached great dramatic significance to dancing. With the "Polish act" of this opera, Glinka laid the foundation for Russian ballet music.

"Aria of Susanin" - (4th act), the dramatic culmination of the entire opera. The main features of the hero's appearance at the decisive hour of his life are revealed here. Opening recitative - "Feel the truth ...." based on the unhurried, confident intonation of the song warehouse. The very aria "You will rise, my dawn ..." expresses deep thought, excitement and heartfelt sorrow and courage. Susanin sacrifices himself for the sake of the Fatherland. And love for her gives him strength, helps to endure all suffering with dignity. The melody of the aria is simple and strict, broadly chanted. It is full of warmth of intonation typical of Russian lyric songs. The aria is built in three parts: the first is of a concentrated, restrained character; the second is more excited and expressive; the third is a repetition of the first part. (Hearing).

In this aria, Glinka for the first time, on the basis of folk song intonations, created music imbued with genuine tragedy, "elevated the folk tune to tragedy." This is the composer's innovative approach to folk song.

The ingenious "GLORATE" crowns the opera. This choir embodies the idea of \u200b\u200bpatriotism and the greatness of the Motherland, and here it receives the most complete, complete and vivid figurative expression. The music is full of solemnity and epic power, which is typical of the ANTHEM. The melody is akin to the tunes of heroic, valiant folk songs.

The music of the finale expresses the idea that Susanin's feat was done for the sake of the people and therefore is immortal. The music of the finale is performed by three choirs, two orchestras (one - brass, on stage) and bells. (Hearing).

In this opera, Glinka retained the features of a romantic outlook and embodied the best features of Russian realistic music: powerful passion, rebellious spirit, free flight of imagination, strength and brightness of musical color, high ideals of Russian art.

Literature

1. Russian musical literature. Ed. E.L. Freed. L., 1970

2. Cannes - Novikova E. A little story about M.I. Glinka. M., 1987.

3. Livanova T.M. M.I. Glinka. M., 1962.

4. Remizov I.V. Glinka M.I. M., 1960.

The Ideas of the Enlightenment in Foreign Literature Jonathan Swift (1667 - 1745) "Gulliver's Journey"

Our age is worthy only of satire. J. Swift

The great works of art born in the Age of Enlightenment have been living for the fourth century. Thoughts, passions, deeds of people of that distant time become close to people of other eras, capture their imagination, instill faith in life. Among such creations is Mozart's opera Le Nozze di Figaro, with its hero, never discouraged and never surrendering under any circumstances. Among such creations are Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" and paintings by William Hogarth and Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin and other masters of the era.

If a traveler comes to the capital of Ireland, Dublin, he is sure to be taken to a small house where the dean of St. Petra Jonathan Swift. This house is a shrine to the Irish people. Swift is an Englishman, but was born in Dublin, where the father of the future writer moved in search of work.

Swift's independent life began in the English estate of Moore Park, where, after graduating from Dublin University, he received a secretary position from the influential nobleman Sir William Temple. The former minister Temple, after retiring, settled in his estate and began to engage in literary work. Swift, with an extraordinary talent for writing, was simply a godsend for Temple, who shamelessly took advantage of the young secretary's labor.

This service burdened the young secretary, but he was kept in Moore Park by the extensive Temple library and his young pupil Esther Johnson, for whom Swift carried a tender affection throughout his life.

The stele (as Swift called her) followed her friend and teacher to the Irish village of Laracor, where he went after Temple's death to become a priest there. Many years later, Swift will write to Stele on her birthday:

Heart friend! Will suit you

Today is the thirty-fifth year.

Your years have doubled

However, age is not a problem.

I won't forget, Stele, no,

How did you bloom at sixteen

However, over beauty

Takes your mind today.

When to share the gods

Gifts are so halved

Whatever century for human feelings

Showed two such young nymphs,

So dividing your years

To make beauty split in two?

Then a freak to fate

I would have to heed my plea

Like sharing my eternal fervor

That he was peculiar to two.

Swift had to endure Stele, and he deeply grieved over the death of "the most faithful, worthy and invaluable friend with whom I ... was ... blessed."

Swift could not limit himself to the humble activities of a pastor. While Temple was still alive, he published his first poems and pamphlets, but the real beginning of Swift's literary activity can be considered his book "The Tale of a Barrel" - (an English folk expression that has a meaning: talk nonsense, grind nonsense), written for the general improvement of the human race. "

Voltaire, after reading The Tale of a Barrel, said: "Swift assures that he was full of respect for his father, although he treated his three sons with a hundred rods, but mistrustful people found that the rods were so long that they hurt their father."

"The Tale of the Cask" brought Swift great fame in the literary and political circles of London. His sharp pen is appreciated by both political parties: the Whigs and the Tories.

Swift initially supported the Whig party, but very soon left them due to disagreement with their foreign policy. The Duke of Marlborough, the head of the Whigs, sought to continue the bloody war with France for the "Spanish inheritance". This war devastated the country, but Marlborough grew rich in military supplies. Swift began to support the Tories and fought against the war with his pen.

In 1713, the Utrecht Peace Treaty was concluded, not without the direct influence of the writer. This agreement is even called "Swift's world".

Now Swift has become such an influential figure in political circles that it has proven inconvenient to leave him as a village priest.

Friends assured him that he would be elevated to at least the rank of bishop. But high-ranking clergymen could not forgive the genius satirist for his famous "Tale of a Barrel". After years of hesitation, the Queen granted Swift the position of dean (abbot) of Dublin Cathedral, which was tantamount to honorary exile.

For eight years, Swift was in Dublin, Ireland, almost without a break. And in 1726, at the fifty-eighth year of his life, he again found himself in the center of political struggle. This time, he turned his talent to defend the Irish people.

The reason for Swift's performances in the political arena was the scandal that erupted around Irish money. The English entrepreneur Wood, who minted copper money for Ireland, put part of the copper received from the British government in his pocket. The Irish received their salary in shillings, which contained 10 times less copper than English coins of the same denomination. Swift published a series of pamphlets entitled "Letters from a Cloth Man," in which he, ostensibly on behalf of a Dublin cloth trader, described the dire poverty of the Irish and blamed the British government for undermining the Irish economy with Wood's hands.

Swift's pamphlets sparked an uprising in Dublin The British Prime Minister Lord Walpole ordered the arrest of Swift. But the withdrawn and stern dean of Dublin Cathedral became the favorite of the Irish people. A special detachment was created to guard him, day and night on duty near Swift's house.

As a result, Prime Minister Walpole received an answer from Ireland: “It takes ten thousand soldiers to arrest Swift.” The case had to be hushed up. Viceroy

Ireland Lord Carteret declared: "I rule Ireland with the permission of Dr. Swift"

Swift died in 1745 and was buried in Dublin Cathedral. On his tombstone was engraved the inscription he himself had made: “Here lies the body of Jonathan Swift, the dean of this cathedral church, and his heart is no longer torn by severe indignation. Go, traveler, and imitate, if you can, the stubborn defender of courageous freedom. " Swift was distinguished by extraordinary secrecy. He surrounded the creation of the main work of his life - a novel, on which he worked for more than six years - "Travel to some distant countries of the world by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon and then a captain of several ships". Even the publisher, who received the manuscript of the novel from an "unknown person" in 1726, did not know who its author was. Swift put the manuscript on his doorstep and rang the bell. When the publisher opened the door, he saw the manuscript and a retiring cab. Swift left London at once back to Dublin.

We all read this fascinating book as a child. Although it was written for adults. Therefore, let's try to read it again and try to get into the author's intention.

The composition of the novel consists of 4 parts. Each of the parts is a story about some fantastic country. The story is told on behalf of the main character - Gulliver, a navigator, who, by chance, finds himself in these countries. In other words, like Robinson Crusoe, it is a travel novel. Let's remember where the novel begins.

Gulliver finds himself in Lilliput - a country inhabited by tiny people 12 times smaller than a normal person.

We learn that in Lilliputia there is a monarchy and an emperor is at the head of the state, the same little man like all the Lilliputians, but he calls himself "The joy and horror of the universe." In the empire “... About seventy moons ago, two warring parties were formed, known as the Tremeksen and Slemeksen. The first are supporters of high heels, the second - low. ... His Majesty is a supporter of low heels and ordered that all employees of government and court institutions use low heels. " We see how “essential” their differences are.

High-ranking dignitaries, applying for important government positions, compete in the ability to jump on a tightrope. Swift means by such exercises the ability to deftly weave intrigues, to curry favor with the monarch.

Lilliputia is at war with the neighboring state of Blefuscu over which end to break the eggs from. Years ago, the heir to the throne cut his finger at breakfast, breaking an egg from the blunt end. “Then the emperor, his father, issued a decree ordering all his subjects, on pain of severe punishment, to break eggs from the sharp end. This decree embittered the population to such an extent that ... was the cause of six uprisings ... The monarchs of Blefuscu steadily incited these uprisings and sheltered their participants in their domains. There are up to eleven thousand fanatics who went to death for refusing to break eggs from the sharp end. "

We see how absurd the reason for these bloody wars is. And Gulliver understands this, But can he influence the events of Lilliputian life? Gulliver is at first a prisoner of the Lilliputians. He offers no resistance and is only concerned not to harm these little creatures. Then he received a very limited freedom, signing nine clauses of obligations, and immediately did the rulers of Lilliput an invaluable service by capturing the enemy's fleet. Thanks to this, a peace treaty was concluded on terms favorable to Lilliput.

How did the emperor repay Gulliver for this and other services rendered to him?

At the slander of envious people, Gulliver was accused of high treason and sentenced to death, but then the emperor "by his inherent kindness, decided to spare his life and be content with the command to gouge out both of his eyes," and then starve him to death.

So the emperor and his minions repaid Gulliver for his complaisance, kindness and help.

Gulliver no longer trusts in the mercy of the emperor and flees to Blefuscu, from there, having built a boat, he goes home.

Thus ended Gulliver's first journey.

What is fantastic in the land of Lilliput? Small size of the inhabitants of this country and everything that surrounds them? Compared to normal human growth, Gulliver is exactly 12 times more midgets, so it is he who seems to the midgets a fantastic creature. In all other respects, Lilliputia is a very real country.

Obviously, Lilliputia resembles modern Swift England, with its two warring parties, with the backstage intrigues of politicians, with a religious schism that is not worth a "damn", but worth the lives of thousands of people.

We also recognize the ancient enmity of the neighbors - England and France, only Swift changed their geographical position: Lilliputia is his mainland, and Blefuscu is an island.

What's the point of this fantastic size reduction? Why did Swift need Lilliputia if he wanted to describe England?

Swift depicts all the orders and events of Lilliputian life in such a way that this country, beyond which England is visible, looks very funny. Having turned his homeland into Lilliputia and forcing us to believe in its reality, Swift subjects English manners, politics, and religion to caustic satirical ridicule.

In other words, Llilliputia is a contemporary bourgeois England seen by the artist and revealed by the means of art, with a social system that Swift denies.

Having shown that modern English society is not ideal, Swift sends his hero to other "distant countries of the world." What for? In search of this ideal.

Has Swift found an ideal social order in which people would be free, equal, and have a sense of brotherhood for each other?

To answer this question, we read a fragment from the second part of the novel: “Seeing me, the baby ... raised ... a cry, ... he took me for a toy. The hostess, guided by a feeling of maternal tenderness, took me and put me in front of the child. He immediately grabbed my waist and thrust my head into his mouth. I screamed so desperately that the child dropped me in fright. Fortunately, the hostess managed to substitute her apron for me. Otherwise, I would certainly have crashed to death. "

This fragment from the second part of the novel "A Journey to Brobdingneg" Gulliver here himself was in the role of a midget in relation to the inhabitants of this country, which became the reason for the curious situations.

For example, the story of two rats, from which Gulliver bravely defended himself, wielding his dirk.

Let us recall the episode with the frog that nearly sank the Gulliver's boat with a sail. And the story of the monkey, which almost tortured poor Gulliver to death, mistaking him for a cub, is absolutely dramatic.

All these episodes are very funny for both giants and readers. But Gulliver himself was in real danger to life.

How does Gulliver manifest himself in these funny, humiliating and dangerous situations?

He does not lose presence of mind, nobility, self-esteem and curiosity of the traveler. For example, having killed a rat that a minute ago could have devoured him, Gulliver busily measures its tail and informs the reader that the length of the tail was equal to two yards without one inch.

The humiliating position of the little toy did not make Gulliver either cowardly or spiteful. He invariably responds to the antics of the royal dwarf with generosity and intercession. Although the dwarf once thrust him into the bone, and the next time he almost drowned him in a bowl of cream.

What does Gulliver do in the land of giants? He is studying the Brobdingneg language so that he can converse with the kind and intelligent king of Brobdingneg.

What are the King and Gulliver talking about?

The king asks Gulliver about the English state system, which Gulliver talks about in great detail. His presentation to the king took five audiences.

Why does the king listen to Gulliver's stories with such interest? The king himself answered this question. He said: "... although the sovereigns always firmly adhere to the customs of their country, but I would be glad to find something worthy of imitation in other states."

And what did Gulliver offer King "worthy of emulation"? He spoke in detail about the destructive effects of guns filled with gunpowder. At the same time, Gulliver kindly offered to make gunpowder. The king was horrified by such a proposal. He was deeply outraged by the terrible scenes of bloodshed caused by the action of these destructive machines. “Only some evil genius, an enemy of the human race, could invent them,” the king said. Nothing gives him such pleasure, the king said, as scientific discoveries, but he would rather agree to lose half of the kingdom than to be initiated into the secret of such an invention. " war did not find anything worthy of emulation. The King of Brobdingneg states that “... good government requires only common sense, justice and kindness. He believes that anyone who, instead of one ear or one stalk of grass, will be able to grow two in the same field, will do humanity and his homeland a greater service than all politicians taken together. "

This is an enlightened monarch, and his state is an enlightened monarchy. Can this state be considered ideal, such as the enlighteners dreamed of? Of course not! The inhabitants of this country are driven by greed, a thirst for profit. The farmer drove Gulliver to exhaustion by earning money from him. Seeing that Gulliver was ill and could die, the farmer sold him to the queen for a thousand zlotys.

On the streets of the capital, Gulliver saw beggars. Here's how he talks about it: “It was a terrible sight. Among the beggars there was a woman with such wounds on her chest that I could climb into them and hide there, as in a cave. Another beggar had a goiter about five bales of wool around his neck. The third stood on wooden legs twenty feet (30.4 cm) high each. But the most disgusting of all were the lice crawling on their clothes "

As we can see, the society of the country of giants is not free from social ulcers, despite the fact that this country is headed by the king-scientist, the king-philosopher, who cares about his subjects, but the engine of the life of society is money, a passion for profit. Therefore, one part of society grows rich without hindrance, and the other - beggars.

Swift showed that an enlightened monarchy is not able to provide its subjects with the triumph of freedom, equality and brotherhood, if the power of money over people, and hence poverty, inequality, remains in this state.

But the author does not lose hope. Maybe somewhere else there are other countries, arranged more justly. The search is not over. And Gulliver, miraculously freed and returned to his homeland, did not lose his passion for travel.

"We weighed anchor on August 5, 1706 ..." This is how Gulliver's third journey began - "Journey to Laputa"

Gulliver ends up on a flying island. Whom did he see there?

“Never before have I seen mortals who would cause such surprise with their figure, clothing and facial expression. All their heads were beveled to the right and left: one eye squinted inward, and the other looked straight up. Their outer clothing was decorated with images of the sun, moon, stars, interspersed with images of a violin, flute, harp, trumpet, guitar, clavichord "

What are the strange inhabitants of the island doing?

Laputians are busy with the most abstract sciences and arts, namely mathematics, astronomy and music. They are so immersed in their thoughts that they do not notice anything around. Therefore, they are always accompanied by servants who, as necessary, pat the masters on the lips, then on the eyes, then on the ears with huge bubbles inflated with air, thereby prompting them to listen, see, and speak.

In the capital, there is an academy of projectors, where they are engaged in rather strange scientific research. One of the scientists extracts the sun's rays from cucumbers. Another came up with a new way of building buildings - from the roof. The third breeds a breed of naked sheep. Such "great" discoveries, all this scientific activity is not aimed at improving people's lives. The country's economy is shaken. People are starving, walking in rags, their homes are being destroyed, and the scientific elite does not care about this.

What is the relationship between the King of Laputa and his subjects living on earth?

In the hands of this monarch, a terrible punishing machine - a flying island, with the help of which he holds the whole country under his control.

If in any city they refuse to pay taxes, the king stops his island over them, depriving people of sun and rain, throws stones on them. If they persist in their disobedience, then the island, by order of the king, is lowered directly onto the heads of the disobedient and flattened them along with the houses.

This is how destructive the achievement of science can have when it is in the hands of an inhuman ruler. Science in this country is anti-human, it is directed against people.

Three countries passed before the eyes of the traveling Gulliver, in which there was one type of government - monarchy.

Readers, along with Gulliver, came to the conclusion that any monarchy is evil. Why?

We can say this. Even an enlightened king of giants cannot create ideal economic and social conditions for human life. A monarchy in the worst case, when an evil despot, indifferent to the interests of the people, has unlimited power, is the greatest evil for humanity.

In the fourth part, Gulliver finds himself in the country of the Guygnhnms. The inhabitants of this country are horses, but, according to Gulliver, they are superior to people in rationality and moral qualities. Huyhnhnms do not know such vices as lies, deceit, envy and greed. Their language does not even have words to denote these concepts. They do not quarrel among themselves and do not fight. They have no weapons. They are kind and noble, above all they value friendship. Their society is built on a reasonable basis, and their activities are aimed at the benefit of all its members. The state system of this country is a republic. Their form of power is council.

“Every four years on the vernal equinox ... there is a council of representatives of the entire nation. ... This council discusses the status of the various districts: whether they are adequately supplied with hay, oats, cows and ehu. If something is missing in one of the districts, the council delivers supplies there from other districts. Resolutions on this are always adopted unanimously "

Gulliver found this country ideal. But is it perfect from our point of view?

The Guygnhnms do not have writing, and therefore literature. They do not develop either science or technology, i.e. they do not strive for social progress. Their vaunted rationality still cannot be compared with the inquiring human mind, endlessly striving to learn new things.

“The basic rule of life is for them to completely subordinate their behavior to the guidance of reason.” But this practically excludes all feelings. They even treat the death of their loved ones "rationally", that is, indifferent. Here it is appropriate to recall the episode with one mare who was late for a visit due to the sudden death of her husband. She apologized for being late, and the whole evening was as calm and cheerful as the other guests.

Gulliver is nevertheless driven out of their country by the good Guygnhnms, deciding that it is unwise to keep such a dubious creature in their society. What if he does them some harm!

Gulliver returns to his homeland, where he now spends most of his time in the stable. The travels are over. It is possible to summarize: having seen his hero across different countries, does Swift find an ideal social structure?

Not. Swift finds no positive ideal either in contemporary English bourgeois society (Lilliputia), or in the enlightened monarchy of giants, or on the flying island of scientists. And the virtuous republic of Huygnhnms seems to be a utopia, it is no coincidence that it is still a society of horses, not people. What is the main strength of Swift's novel?

The power of his novel is in the satirical ridicule of the unjust forms of social existence. There are unusual creatures in the fourth part of the novel that play an important role in the narrative. Who are ehu? What is the meaning of their appearance in the novel?

Ehu are filthy, ugly wild animals that inhabit the country of the Guygnhnms in abundance. They are very human-like in their appearance. On closer examination, Gulliver also saw this similarity and was horrified. But do they look like humans only in appearance?

After similar conversations with Gulliver, the gray horse came to the conclusion that there are many similarities with the customs of the ehu in the customs and manners of the European peoples. “... The reasons for strife among these cattle are the same as the reasons for strife among your fellow tribesmen. Indeed, if you give five of them enough food for fifty, then instead of calmly starting to eat, they start a fight. Everyone tries to seize everything for himself. ”Often in a fight they inflict serious wounds on each other with claws and teeth. Yehu fight not only for food, but also for jewels - multicolored shiny pebbles that they hide from each other. There is another similarity to humans. For example, they enjoy sucking on the root, which acts on them in the same way that alcohol and drugs affect Europeans. Most herds have rulers who are particularly vicious in nature and therefore keep the entire flock in obedience. They surround themselves with nasty favorites that everyone else hates. The gray horse saw in

this is a great resemblance to European monarchs and their ministers. Where did these vile animals appear in the country of the Huygnhnms? According to legend, a couple of vile ehu once arrived in this country from across the sea. They multiplied, ran wild, and their descendants completely lost their minds. In other words, ehu are degenerate people who have lost their culture and civilization, but have retained all the vices of human society.

Swift here argues with Defoe and his image of the ideal, reasonable bourgeois, since the story of exu is an anti-Robinsonade. In the fourth part, Swift's satire reached its climax. The funny becomes scary. Swift painted a picture of the degeneration of human society, living according to the laws of exu.

The fourth part is the final conclusion, the result of this philosophical journey. As long as humanity is driven by the thirst for profit, power and bodily pleasures, society will not be built according to the laws of reason. Moreover, it will follow the path of degradation and destruction. Swift consistently and logically debunks the enlightenment-bourgeois ideology, going from the particular to the general, from one specific country to the all-human generalization.

The genius satirist was far ahead of his era. What is the contemporary sound of the novel for us? Have Swift's warnings lost their relevance?

If greed, deception, the power of money and things, drunkenness, drug addiction, blackmail, servility, excessive ambition and ambitions that have not been realized in the past and which cannot be realized in the present, provocations and endless strife with their own kind, turning into terrible, bloody wars, will reign over humanity, then people run the risk of turning to exu. And no amount of civilization and a high level of scientific and technological progress will save them from this. It is terrible if culture is hopelessly lagging behind civilization! People change clothes, but vices, acquiring a civilized look, remain.