Presentation on the history of Russia on the topic "prerequisites for Peter's reforms". Petrine time in works of art Artistic culture of the 18th century

peter serf reform politics

The assessment of the activities of the reformer tsar - and according to some historians, even a "revolutionary" or "first Bolshevik" - and his very personality was, of course, extremely controversial and remains so to this day: some admire him as a brilliant political figure who turned the tide of Russian history, and they pass over in silence those methods by which he did it, others angrily condemn precisely for these methods, for autocracy, and sometimes tyranny, for thousands of victims during the construction of St. people, underdevelopment of aesthetic taste, drunkenness and debauchery, and in one of the recently published books, historians declare that all the actions of Peter were generated by concern not for the development of Russia, but only for "strengthening his autocratic throne."

Moritz of Saxony called Peter the greatest man of his century.

August Strindberg described Peter as “A barbarian who civilized his Russia; he who built cities, but did not want to live in them; he who punished his wife with a whip and gave the woman wide freedom - his life was great, rich and useful in public terms, in private terms, such as it turned out.

Westerners positively assessed the reforms of Peter the Great, thanks to which Russia became a great power and joined the European civilization.

CM. Solovyov spoke of Peter in enthusiastic tones, attributing to him all the successes of Russia both in internal affairs and in foreign policy, showed the organic and historical readiness of the reforms:

The need to move onto a new road was recognized; At the same time, the duties were determined: the people got up and gathered on the road; but someone was waiting; waiting for the leader; the leader arrived.

The historian believed that the emperor saw his main task in the internal transformation of Russia, and the Northern War with Sweden was only a means to this transformation. According to Solovyov:

The difference of opinion stemmed from the enormity of the work done by Peter, the duration of the influence of this work. The more significant a phenomenon is, the more divergent views and opinions it generates, and the more they talk about it, the more they feel its influence on themselves.

P.N. Milyukov, in his works, develops the idea that the reforms were carried out by Peter spontaneously, from time to time, under the pressure of specific circumstances, without any logic and plan, they were "reforms without a reformer." He also mentions that only "at the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power." According to Milyukov, during the reign of Peter the Great, the population of Russia within the boundaries of 1695 decreased due to incessant wars.

S.F. Platonov belonged to the apologists of Peter. In his book Personality and Activity, he wrote the following:

People of all generations in assessing the personality and activities of Peter agreed on one thing: he was considered a force. Peter was the most prominent and influential figure of his time, the leader of all the people. No one considered him an insignificant person who unconsciously used power or blindly walked along a random road.

In addition, Platonov pays a lot of attention to the personality of Peter, highlighting his positive qualities: energy, seriousness, natural intelligence and talents, the desire to figure everything out on his own.

N.I. Pavlenko believed that Peter's transformations were a major step along the road to progress (albeit within the framework of feudalism). Outstanding Soviet historians largely agree with him: E.V. Tarle, N.N. Molchanov, V.I. Buganov, considering the reforms from the point of view of Marxist theory.

Voltaire wrote repeatedly about Peter. By the end of 1759 he published the first volume, and in April 1763 the second volume of "The History of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great" was published. Voltaire defines the main value of Peter's reforms as the progress that the Russians have made in 50 years, other nations cannot achieve this even in 500. Peter I, his reforms, their significance became the object of the dispute between Voltaire and Rousseau.

N.M. Karamzin, recognizing this sovereign as the Great, severely criticizes Peter for his excessive passion for foreign countries, the desire to make Russia the Netherlands. A sharp change in the "old" way of life and national traditions undertaken by the emperor, according to the historian, is far from always justified. As a result, Russian educated people "became citizens of the world, but ceased to be, in some cases, citizens of Russia."

IN. Klyuchevsky thought that Peter was making history, but did not understand it. To protect the Fatherland from enemies, he devastated it more than any enemy ... After him, the state became stronger, and the people - poorer. “All his transformative activity was guided by the thought of the necessity and omnipotence of imperious coercion; he hoped only by force to impose on the people the blessings he lacked. “Grief threatened the one who, even secretly, even in a drunkenness, would think: “Does the king lead us to good, and are these torments in vain, will they not lead to the worst torments for many hundreds of years?” But to think, even to feel anything other than humility was forbidden.”

B.V. Kobrin argued that Peter did not change the most important thing in the country: serfdom. Fortress industry. Temporary improvements in the present doomed Russia to a crisis in the future.

According to R. Pipes, Kamensky, N.V. Anisimov Peter's reforms were extremely controversial. Serf-owning methods and repressions led to an overstrain of the people's forces.

N.V. Anisimov believed that, despite the introduction of a number of innovations in all spheres of society and the state, the reforms led to the conservation of the autocratic-serf system in Russia.

A.M. Burovsky calls Peter I, following the Old Believers, the “antichrist tsar”, as well as a “possessed sadist” and a “bloody monster”, claiming that his activities ruined and bled Russia. According to him, everything good that is attributed to Peter was known long before him, and Russia before him was much more developed and free than after.

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1. Lessons of Peter the Great to contemporaries and descendants

Today there are two images of Peter the Great - real and imaginary. The semi-official Elizabethan-Stalinist myth about the sinless tsar, the "transformer of the Fatherland", is firmly rooted in the mass consciousness. Its foundation was laid by the historian V.N. Tatishchev, an associate of Peter, who created the image of an ideal, charismatic autocrat-reformer. Under Stalin, the myth gained a second wind. The main role in the resuscitation of the image was played by the talented novel by Alexei Tolstoy "Peter I". After its screening in the film of the same name, the literary and cinematic epic image of Peter the Great, "the first Russian Bolshevik, a revolutionary on the throne", remained imprinted in the minds of Soviet people for a long time. This image not only artistically and morally justified and ennobled Stalin's policy aimed at accelerated modernization using super-tough coercive measures, but also helped create a patriotic upsurge during the Great Patriotic War.

Nowadays, the myth has already received a third wind. Largely thanks to the mass media, the "Peter's Renaissance" came. It began with the return of the name of St. Petersburg to Leningrad, the approval of the standard of Peter as the official state flag, the restoration of Peter's awards as the highest state distinctions, the renaming of the missile cruiser "Yuri Andropov" into "Peter the Great" and ended with a magnificent celebration of the 300th anniversary of the founding of Northern Palmyra - the birthplace of the current president of Russia.

However, it is time to move away from myths and legends and show the true historical role of Peter the Great. This is also important because Russian historians evaluate the role, significance and price of his reforms, as well as real alternatives to his reforms, in a very wide range: from the apologetics of S. Solovyov, the very critical assessments of V. Klyuchevsky to the complete debunking of the activities of the first Russian emperor P. Milyukov. These conflicting assessments most often depend on ideological and political positions and, alas, purely opportunistic moments. This dispute can be endless, especially since each of the great historians uses his own frame of reference.

Of course, Peter's personality is far from ideal. But the point is not only in the positive and negative features of his nature. For us, his descendants, living at the beginning of the 21st century, the questions are relevant and important: how the Russian emperor began to carry out the total Europeanization of the Muscovite kingdom, what ways and methods (in current terminology, what “technologies”) he tried, what price the peoples paid Russia for the unrestrained leap to the heights of the European civilization of that time, and could this price be avoided? As you can see, this “questionnaire” makes it possible to look at the activities and appearance of the reformer tsar quite objectively and to highlight in the boundless material devoted to his era and reign, key points that will allow us to capture the most essential in that most complex and contradictory process that we call " Europeanization of Russia.

Peter the Great made the greatest contribution to the European history of that time. During his reign, Russia, located on the eastern periphery of the Old World and transformed by him into an empire, began to play a leading role in Europe. The direction, course and results of the development of European peoples largely depended on the position of St. Petersburg. His contribution to the development of our Fatherland is very great and undeniable. Thanks to Peter's reforms, Russia made a powerful modernization breakthrough. This allowed our country to stand in the first row of leading European countries: France, England, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and also avoid the real threat of its division between Sweden, the Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire and Persia.

These results were achieved thanks to the enormous efforts of the monarch himself and the whole people. Peter the Great waged four wars that significantly changed the political map of Eurasia. Of the 42 years of the king's reign, more than 40 fell on wars. About a hundred thousand Russian soldiers laid their heads in them. Four hundred thousand soldiers became disabled and were dismissed from the army due to injuries. Such is the price of victory in the battles of the Petrine era.

Russian-Turkish war 1686-1699 was successful. The fortress city of Azov, the territory adjacent to it, as well as the Zaporizhzhya Sich, went to Russia. However, the Prut campaign in 1711 ended unsuccessfully. Therefore, the Brilliant Porte had to return Azov and Zaporozhye. As a result of the victory in the Northern War, the lands of Ingermanland, Livonia and Estonia, as well as Western Karelia, the Vyborg province and the Moonsund Islands, were ceded to Russia. The territory of our country has increased by 128 thousand square meters. km, where about three hundred thousand inhabitants lived. During the successful Persian campaign in 1722-1723. the territories of the Derbent, Baku, Shirvan, Gilan khanates, Mazanderan and Astrabad provinces with a total area of ​​75 thousand square meters were included in the empire. km, where more than seven hundred thousand inhabitants lived. The geopolitical position of Russia has changed radically. She received access to the Baltic Sea, and the Caspian Sea became an inland Russian lake. The territory of our country has increased by 200 thousand square meters. km, where about a million people lived. By the end of Peter's reign, it amounted to 15.2 million square meters. km. The population of Russia during the years of his reign increased by one and a half times and totaled 15.6 million people. It should be noted that wars, the development of new lands, and especially the construction of St. Petersburg cost the lives of more than three hundred thousand Russian people and 160 million rubles. Such was the human and financial cost of Peter's reforms. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many historians, formally evaluating his deeds and not taking into account the general historical context, made excessively high demands on the results of Peter's reforms, believing that they not only did not contribute to the Europeanization of the country, but even strengthened its Asian, despotic features. . Figuratively speaking, they believed that Peter put on the European uniform of a legal, regular state over the wild, eastern autocracy that we inherited from the Golden Horde.

However, in fact, all the processes that took place with the Moscow kingdom during the time of Peter's activity were more complex and contradictory than some historians and publicists seem to think. They possessed an internal logic of development and a mysterious intrigue connected with the secret springs of despotic power, which has not yet been deciphered. Naturally, the great transformations were unthinkable without the improvement of the entire system of government of the country. Peter the Great made a great contribution to the construction of the Russian statehood. He carried out a whole series of reforms in the field of public administration, based on rationalization, centralization and bureaucratization. He abolished such important institutions of the estate-representative monarchy as the Boyar Duma, the 80 orders, the patriarchate, and established instead of them in the spirit of absolutism the Governing Senate, 12 collegiums and the Holy Synod, as well as the prosecutor's office, fiscal, secret office and permanent embassies abroad. Peter essentially transformed the institutions of the royal power of the Muscovite state into an imperial system of government. The autocrat became not only the bearer, but also the source of unlimited supreme power. Peter himself very wittily and aphoristically formulated its essence: "The law is not written to the Tsar, he writes them himself." It should be noted that he personally wrote more than six thousand decrees and orders. He believed that "it is necessary to write decrees and laws clearly so that they are not reinterpreted." Following the best European standards of governance, the absolute monarch established 20 provinces instead of 100 voivodeships and governorships, uniting them into 8 governor-generals, thereby moving to the territorial division of the country and eliminating the remnants of feudal separatism. This reform is in many ways consonant with the administrative transformations of the Russian territories that are taking place in our time. Peter personally in 1722 developed and approved the Table of Ranks, rationalized, modernized and unified the military, naval, civil and court structure of positions, ranks and ranks. Therefore, it is no coincidence that modern reformers, having begun administrative transformations, are preparing a new Table of ranks for state officials and employees. It should be noted that under Peter there were only about three thousand officials per 15 million population, or 1 official per 500 inhabitants. Today in the Russian Federation there is one civil servant per ten inhabitants, and their total number is equal to the number of the entire population of the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter.

Thanks to the efforts of the emperor, a coherent and harmonious system of administrative and bureaucratic management, military and police control over the country with the help of the service nobility and bureaucratic bureaucracy was formed. In essence, Peter was the ancestor of a very effective "command-administrative" system of authoritarian government. And in this sense, he was, in the words of the poet Maximilian Voloshin, "the first Russian Bolshevik", the forerunner of the merciless revolutionary Lenin. The autocrat believed that with the help of state terror and violence, it is possible, necessary and must rapidly modernize Russian society, otherwise it will become an easy prey for cunning and treacherous neighbors.

As head of state, Peter was the founder of a regular, combat-ready and professional armed forces: the Russian army and the Russian navy. According to the famous military historian of the XIX century. infantry general G. Leer, "he was a great commander who knew how, could and wanted to do everything himself." The tsar combined the talents of a flexible politician, a clever diplomat, a brilliant strategist and a brilliant tactician. This rare combination is found only in two great commanders - Frederick the Great and Napoleon, whose fate ended sadly. If Charles XII, the main opponent of the Russian autocrat, waged the Northern War largely "for the sake of military glory", then with Peter I it was completely subordinated to his great-power policy. The latter did nothing for nothing and was guided only by the interests of the state entrusted to him.

Charles XII received the Swedish army in excellent condition from his father. Peter created his armed forces from a 200,000-strong scattered conglomerate of noble cavalry, archers, Cossacks, city troops and regiments of a foreign system. They numbered 250 thousand personnel and professional soldiers.

They included a 10,000th guard, 70,000th infantry and artillery, where there were 1,500 guns, as well as a 70,000th cavalry, where there were light hussars, reiters and dragoons, and 75,000th Cossack units and internal service troops. From scratch, he built the second largest navy in the world, numbering more than three hundred ships, including 10 frigates, 21 ships of the line, 130 galleys, 40 brigantines and more than a hundred other ships, where 25 thousand sailors served. Peter knew how to achieve superhuman efforts from his subordinates. If necessary, soldiers and sailors carried dozens of ships hundreds of miles away. However, he never spent their strength in vain and strove, in his own words, "to conquer the glorious Victoria with a mighty blow, little bloodshed and in a foreign land."

So, in the Northern War, out of 33 battles and battles, only three took place on the territory of our country. In total, 40 thousand Russians and 80 thousand enemy soldiers died in this war. For example, in the famous Battle of Poltava, which decided the outcome of the military campaign, our army lost only 1,345 killed and 3,290 wounded, while the Swedes and Ukrainian Cossacks lost 9,234 killed, and 19,811 soldiers were taken prisoner. As a strategist, Peter correctly chose the place of the new capital at the mouth of the Neva River, surrounding St. Petersburg with a triple ring of fortresses and creating a powerful navy. Thus, he cut the Swedish possessions in the Baltic, and then ousted their troops from Estonia and Finland.

Peter was the founder of "strategic defense", designed to wear down the enemy, to gain time in order to create favorable conditions for going on the offensive and defeating the enemy. As a tactician, Peter was the first to introduce horse artillery, field fortification, a combat reserve, in the infantry - grenadier units and dragoon regiments, as well as tactics of full interaction, timely support, active revenue and synchronism of actions of various units and branches of troops in battles and battles. He was the founder of the tactics of "active defense", as well as the universal use of guards and dragoon units. For example, Preobrazhensky and Semenovtsy could successfully act as sappers, infantry and grenadiers - in a staunch defense, and then as cavalry in the offensive when pursuing enemy troops. This was clearly demonstrated in the Battle of Poltava, when the massive attack of the Swedish army quickly choked in the redoubts and trenches of the Russian troops. Peter justified the tactics of hand-to-hand combat, when, after a volley of guns, a powerful bayonet strike was delivered to the enemy, reinforced by the actions of the grenadiers. In addition, Peter I was an outstanding military theorist and historian. A number of fundamental works belong to his pen. Among them, of particular interest are "Instructions to Bruce", "Establishment for the Battle of the Present" and "Friedrichstadt Instructions", as well as the capital "History of the Swedish War". The tsar personally compiled, edited and published in 1716 the “Military Regulations”, and four years later the “Naval Regulations”. They determined the organization, strategy and tactics of the Russian armed forces for a century. Petrovsky statutes were the initial military-theoretical documents for his followers - Rumyantsev and Suvorov, Orlov and Ushakov. Suvorov's "The Science of Victory" is based on the Charter of 1716 not only in content, but also in the manner of presentation. The statutes are written in simple, intelligible language, with clear and precise wording. Peter founded the first military educational institutions, introduced a single order in military ranks, ranks and positions, enshrined in the Table of Ranks. He, in essence, was the founder of the professional Russian officer corps, generals and admirals. This is largely due to the fact that his teachers were the famous governor A.S. Shein, the famous Admiral F.Ya. Lefort, the gallant General Partrick Gordon, and the brave King Charles XII. The tsar managed to creatively combine the best traditions of Russian military art and European innovations. The sovereign brought up a whole galaxy of remarkable Russian commanders: the first generalissimo A. D. Menshikov, Field Marshal F.A. Golovina, B.P. Sheremeteva, A.I. Repnina, M.M. Golitsyn, Admiral General F.M. Apraksin and others. On January 20, 1705, he personally established the white-blue-red flag, and in 1712 the Andreevsky standard. They existed until 1918, were restored in 1991 and are today the state flags of the Russian Federation and the Navy. As a result, the Russian emperor managed to create a very combat-ready and European-style modern land army and navy.

Peter the Great was well aware that the outcome of battles is determined not only by the quantity and quality of the armed forces, but also by the state of the moral and patriotic spirit of the servicemen. The sovereign attached great importance to moral incentives. He, in essence, was the founder of the modern mass award system. The tsar personally approved the transition from awarding gold and silver rubles to real medals. He has developed and introduced more than fifty types of awards. Among them, it is worth highlighting many commemorative medals awarded for peaceful and military successes, which are inscribed in gold letters in the annals of Russian glory: “For the capture of Noteburg” (1702), “In memory of the founding of St. Petersburg” (1703), “For the capture of Narva” (1704), "For the victory near Kalisz" (1706), "For the victory near Lesnaya" (1708), "For the Poltava battle" (1709), "Judas medal for the traitor Mazepa" (1709), "For the capture of Vyborg" ( 1710), "For the Battle of Vaz" (1714), "For the victory at Gangut" (1714), "For the victory at Grengam" (1720), "In memory of the Peace of Nystadt" (1721) and "For participation in the Persian campaign" ( 1723). Peter's well-known thought sounds very modern: “Victory is decided by the art of war, the courage of generals and the fearlessness of soldiers. They are the protection and fortress of the Fatherland.”

Significant victories of Russian weapons would be unthinkable without significant changes in the economic and economic life of the country. The young king understood this at the very beginning of his reign, after a trip to Europe. He made a huge contribution to the development of the economy, trade, finance and industry. The monarch opened the first stock exchange in Russia and established customs on the European model. In 1699-1704. the monetary reform was successfully carried out. He introduced the regular minting of gold coins: single, double chervonets and two rubles. By his decree, a regular issue of a large bank silver coin in denominations of one ruble, half a half and half a fifty, as well as a small change of silver coins was established: hryvnias, nickels, altyns, pennies and kopecks. In addition, Peter successfully introduced into circulation copper coins in denominations of five, two and one kopecks, as well as money, half a penny and half a penny. Moreover, in 1725 copper rubles, half a half, half a half and hryvnia were minted.

Gold chervonets and silver rubles corresponded in their weight characteristics to the Dutch guilders and German thalers, which were the pan-European monetary units of that time. Therefore, the new Peter's coins became the first hard convertible Russian currency. They were highly valued on European stock exchanges and contributed to the rapid development of foreign and domestic trade, as well as the widespread involvement of foreign specialists to work in Russia. The tsar consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism, achieved a positive balance in trade with foreign countries and ensured a noticeable influx of gold and silver to the domestic Russian market.

Under Peter, more than two hundred large manufactories, factories and factories were opened for the needs of the army, navy and court, where 25 thousand workers worked, and the volume of production exceeded 5 million rubles. In essence, the tsar became the founder of the Russian military-industrial complex - the main forge of Russian weapons. Only in St. Petersburg, he personally founded four shipyards, the Foundry and Smolyanoy yards, as well as tobacco, velvet, trellis, silk, lace manufactories, three gunpowder and two vodka factories. The autocrat was the founder of the state-owned industry. It should also be noted that he transferred a significant part of state-owned manufactories to the private ownership of the most enterprising industrialists, thereby becoming the founder of large-scale private industry. Woolen and linen manufactories, iron and leather production, as well as tar smoking achieved the greatest success. The export of cheap and high-quality goods was established: cloth, yuft, linen, ropes and ropes, resin, tallow and iron. The king consistently pursued a policy of patronage of the development of industry. The treasury lent interest-free capital to private entrepreneurs, supplied them with tools, tools of production, and hired foreign craftsmen. The authorities attributed the peasants in whole villages to industrial establishments, providing them with great benefits and privileges.

Peter carried out the revolutionary Europeanization of Russia in the field of everyday life, habits, fashion, and the way of life of the nobility. The king introduced the European style of dress and the rules of etiquette, which we still use today. He opened the first museum in our country - the famous Kunstkamera, two botanical gardens and three hospitals. The tsar made visiting museums free of charge, and upon leaving them he presented noble visitors with a glass of vodka. He approved the project of the outstanding educator Leibniz and established the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg University, a gymnasium, appointing L.L. Blumentrost. By order of Peter in 1718, the famous surgeon and anatomist N.L. Bidloo began to make the first surgical instruments, and also published the textbooks "Mirror of Anatomy" and "Anatomical Theater". The sovereign paid great attention to geographical research. At his direction, the self-taught cartographer S.U. Remizov in 1701 compiled a "Drawing of all Siberia" - the first Russian atlas, and Kornely Kruys published maps of the Don River, the Azov and Black Seas. A. Bekovich-Cherkassky, by order of the king, undertook an expedition to Khiva and Bukhara. Based on the results of his research, a map of the Caspian Sea was published in 1720. At this time, surveyors I.M. Evreinov and F.F. Luzhin made a detailed map of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. The king in 1725 ordered to send an expedition of Vitus Bering to discover the passage between Asia and America. As a result, a detailed map of North-Eastern Siberia was created. In 1727 I.K. Kirilov published the first scientific reference book in Russia "The flourishing state of the All-Russian state, in which the beginning was led and left inexpressible by the works of Peter the Great, father of the Fatherland." In the field of development of geology, Peter established the Order of Mining Affairs, which in 1718 was transformed into the Berg Collegium headed by Ya.V. Bruce. More than two hundred mineral deposits were discovered. In 1702, the first astronomical observatory in Russia was founded in the Sukharev Tower, and the following year, the publication of the yearbook "Calendar, or Monthly Books", containing information on astronomy, physics and meteorology, began. Peter was also the founder of Russian technical thought. In 1699 he established the Pushkar school and later transformed it into the Military Engineering Academy. In 1701, the tsar founded the first large Kamensky metallurgical plant in the Urals. By his order, A.K. Nartov in 1712 built the world's first lathe with a self-propelled caliper, and ten years later the first book on mechanics by G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev. The Tsar was the founder of secular and professional education in our country. He opened the Pushkar, Mathematics, Medical and Navigation Schools, which he later transformed into the Artillery, Engineering, Medical and Naval Academies, which still exist today. The sovereign founded the first newspaper in Russia, "Vedomosti about military and other matters worthy of knowledge and memory, which happened in the Muscovite state and in other surrounding countries." He was its first publisher, editor and journalist. The tsar opened the first coffee house in Russia, where Vedomosti was distributed free of charge and coffee drinks were offered. The recent anniversary celebrations on this occasion have finally buried the myth of Bolshevik propaganda about the beginning of the history of journalism in our country since the time of Lenin's Pravda.

In the field of spelling and culture, the tsar carried out a bold reform of the Russian language and established a civil script, which we still use with minor changes. He encouraged the activities of the first Russian satirist A.D. Cantemir. Under him, the genre of battle painting was founded. Somewhat later, I.N. Nikitin painted the famous painting "Peter I on his deathbed". The autocrat established in 1702 on Red Square the first public theater in Russia with 400 seats, and also founded a "choir of singing clerks" and a court orchestra. Here the king himself loved to sing and play the drum. By order of Peter Alekseevich, his friend Feofan Prokopovich wrote and staged in 1705 for the new theater the first domestic play "Vladimir".

Peter was also the founder of a new style - "Peter's Baroque" - in Russian art. It naturally and organically combined Russian folk traditions with the best examples of Western European art: primarily Dutch, French and English. In Russia, thanks to the cares of Peter, the activity of the Swiss architect Dominico Trezzini flourished, who built the magnificent Summer Palace in St. Petersburg, the famous Peter and Paul Cathedral and the building of 12 collegiums, and the fruitful activity of Bartolomeo Rastrelli also began. Peter I paid exceptional attention to the development of architecture and fine arts. He strove to use monumental architecture and sculpture as efficiently and as widely as possible to design metropolitan and suburban residences, gardens, ships, temples, noble palaces, triumphal arches and obelisks. The new life, as opposed to the isolation inherent in the former life, limited by the ethics of Domostroy, was saturated with wide publicity. Assemblies, masquerades, theatrical performances, solemn processions of troops, naval parades, illuminations, festive fireworks in honor of victories - all this required a large-scale and bright artistic design. Painting, architecture and sculpture were literally taken to the streets and “talked” on topical political topics and plots related to events, the participants and creators of which were all strata of society. Cities, fortresses began to be built according to the "general perspectives". They rationally and conveniently located magnificent palaces and monumental cathedrals, majestic state and public buildings, military barracks and arenas, shopping arcades, private mansions, cozy estates and houses, as well as green alleys, shady boulevards, regular parks and river channels. Consequently, the tsarist reforms in the field of education and culture not only contributed to the Europeanization of Russia, but also paved the way for the flourishing of the subsequent golden age of Russian culture.

As a legacy from his predecessors, the young tsar inherited not only court, domestic political, but also foreign policy problems. He was forced to continue a fairly protracted war with the Ottoman Empire for access to the southern seas. In 1695, his first campaign against Azov ended in failure. The following year, the Russian army and fleet, numbering 30 ships, storm the Azov fortress. This was the beginning of the glorious history of the Russian fleet. Peter founds Taganrog. On November 4, 1696, the Boyar Duma decides: "There will be a Russian fleet." 52 ships were built with the money collected from the population. The experience of the Azov campaigns showed the tsar that the Russian army and navy needed a radical upgrade. He understands that the Europeans have gone ahead in technical and organizational terms compared to the tsarist army. In 1697, Peter, as part of the Great Embassy, ​​visits the countries of Western Europe. In Brandenburg, he studied artillery and received a certificate of a firearms master, in Holland and England - a shipbuilder and a shipbuilder. He diligently studies Polish and Dutch. The advanced achievements of culture, which he saw in Europe, shocked the king. He decides to carry out a rapid modernization of Russia in a European manner, so that the backward Muscovite kingdom does not become an easy prey for the European powers. The rebellion of the archers forced Peter to urgently leave for Russia. During the investigation, connections were revealed between the rebels and Tsarevna Sophia. More than a thousand archers were executed, and Peter, with the greatest pleasure, personally chopped off the heads of the recalcitrant and hung their corpses on the walls of the Novodevichy Convent under the windows of the disgraced princess.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the introduction of a new chronology, the celebration of the New Year on January 1, 1700, as well as the wearing of a new dress, shaving of beards and the introduction of township self-government. Thus began the grandiose Peter's reforms. Their consequences still play a huge role in Russian, European and world history. In the new century, the tsar makes two fateful decisions: to make peace with Turkey, since Russia has recaptured the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, and to start a war with Sweden in order to enter Russia into the Baltic.

The arrival of the Russian embassy in Istanbul on the 46-gun frigate "Fortress" had a stunning effect on the Turkish Sultan Mustafa II. He was forced to make peace on Russian terms. By personal decree of Peter, several volleys of "strong gunpowder" were fired with all guns, using special fireworks. Under the terms of the peace treaty, Azov and the surrounding area went to Russia. The Ottoman Empire recognized Moscow's authority over the Zaporozhian Sich.

The struggle with Sweden, which was supported by England and Holland, was called by contemporaries the Great Northern War. On the part of Russia, it was a liberation struggle for the return of the primordially Russian lands lost in 1617 under the Stolbovsky peace, when the Swedish troops, called at the request of Tsar Vasily Shuisky to fight the Polish interventionists, captured Novgorod and Pskov by deceit and cunning. Peter secured the diplomatic support of a number of European countries. He made an alliance with Denmark, the Commonwealth, Saxony, Prussia and Hanover for joint action against Swedish hegemony in the Baltic. However, the campaign of 1700 was unsuccessful. Near Narva, an 11,000-strong Swedish army defeated a 45,000-strong Russian army. She lost 6,000 killed and 145 artillery pieces. On the eve of the battle, Peter himself hastily left for Pskov in order to hasten the Russian regiments marching to Narva. The commander, the first Russian Field Marshal Duke Karl-Eugene de Croix, could not prevent the panic that seized the Russian troops, and surrendered without a fight. The Narva battle changed the character of the king. From that time on, he ceased to trust foreign commanders and decided to quickly prepare a new, more combat-ready and disciplined army, following the example of the Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky regiments and the Worms division. They beat off numerous Swedish attacks with few losses and went out to the drumbeat with banners unfurled from the battlefield. The Swedes released 23,000 Russian prisoners because they could not provide for their maintenance. The first failures taught the young king a lot. He began to understand that the success of a military campaign depended on many circumstances. To achieve victory, personal example, the skill of military leaders and the training of soldiers, the coherence of combat forces, as well as the availability of modern weapons and reserves are important. Therefore, in subsequent campaigns, Peter personally led the main battles and battles. On November 11, 1702, he stormed the Swedish fortress city of Noteburg, which he renamed Shlisselburg (Key City). On May 2, 1703, Peter and Menshikov captured two Swedish warships in boats at the mouth of the Neva. These were the last enemy ships in the Neva. On August 9, 1704, Peter immediately captured the fortified city of Narva, dressing his guardsmen in Swedish uniforms. The military stratagem was brilliantly successful. On September 28, 1708, Peter with 7,000 dragoons also attacked and defeated the 16,000-strong corps of General Levengaupt near the village of Lesnoy, when he was crossing the Lesnyanka River. The Russians lost a thousand soldiers, and the Swedes were killed 8.5 thousand, the rest were captured. On June 27, Russian troops under the leadership of Peter completely defeated the Swedes near Poltava. Three days later, Menshikov's 9,000th corps, pursuing Charles XII, defeated and captured 16,275 Swedish soldiers and the treasury of 400,000 thalers of the Lewenhaupt corps. In 1710, Peter personally took part in the assault on the impregnable Vyborg fortress. On his orders, Apraksin's corps on March 22, passing through the ice of the Gulf of Finland, suddenly captures the city, and on June 6, after a five-day artillery shelling of the castle, its garrison shamefully capitulated. 3 thousand Swedes were taken prisoner, 8 mortars, 2 howitzers and 141 guns were captured. So, under the direct leadership of Peter, the best European army of that time was completely destroyed. On July 27, 1714, the tsar commands the defeat of the Swedish fleet at Gangut. On August 5, 1716, Peter was appointed commander of the Russian, Danish, English, and Dutch fleets and cleared the Baltic Sea of ​​Swedish privateers in ten days. The combat power of the Swedish fleet was finally undermined. Sweden is reduced to the position of a second-rate land and sea power. In 1717, the French King Louis XV awarded the autocrat with a personal medal, in which Peter Alekseevich was called the Tsar-Sovereign of the Russian Empire. The tsar carefully kept this medal until the end of his life as a sign of recognition of the greatness of Russia by France.

The Swedes, incited by England and Holland, nevertheless delayed the conclusion of peace, although Peter repeatedly put forward peace proposals. In mid-May 1721, Russian troops landed in Sweden. He marched more than three hundred kilometers along Swedish roads in a victorious march, dispersed all the garrisons, captured many ships and various trophies. On August 30, peace was signed. The results of the Northern War were of great importance for our country. The victory returned to her from ancient times the vast Baltic coast that belonged to her. It provided Russia with a vital outlet to the sea. Russia entered the broad international arena, turned into an influential world power, without which pan-European problems could no longer be resolved.

But with the conquest of the Black Sea coast, Peter Alekseevich failed, although his plans were both realistic and grandiose. The king enlisted the support of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as the assistance of Poland. They promised to put up an 80,000-strong army. Peter gathered a 190,000th army. She was divided into three groups. The sovereign marched at the head of a 50,000-strong army into the territory of Moldova and occupied the city of Iasi. The Turkish Sultan Ahmet III, fearing an uprising of Christian peoples, offered peace to Peter through the mediation of the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the ruler of Wallachia, Brankovan. The brilliant Porte offered Russia all the lands up to the Danube. However, Peter refused. He overestimated his strength, the help of his allies, and made the biggest mistake of his reign. Brankovan and the Polish king August II evaded participation in the war, and the Moldavian ruler Cantemir did not prepare food for the Russian troops and instead of a 10,000-strong army he was able to gather 7,000 poorly armed peasants. The Grand Vizier Baltadzhi equipped a 300,000-strong army and surrounded the 38,000-strong Russian detachment on the Prut River. Peter decided to give the last fight and signed a decree to the Senate so that in the event of his capture, none of his orders would be carried out. Attempts by the Janissaries to capture the fortified camp of the Russian troops on the move were repulsed on July 9. Negotiations began. Peter's wife, Catherine, donated all her personal jewelry as a gift to the Grand Vizier. At the same time, the Janissaries, having suffered significant losses, demanded an end to the war and refused to participate in hostilities. Charles XII, on the contrary, insisted on the defeat of the Russian army and the capture of Peter. On July 11, the Grand Vizier and Peter signed the Treaty of Prut: Russia returned Azov with its district, destroyed the fortifications on the Dnieper and Don, as well as the Taganrog fortress. Peter refused to interfere in Polish affairs and gave Charles XII a pass to Sweden. The failure of the Prut campaign delayed the liberation of the northern Black Sea region for half a century and Wallachia and Moldavia from the Ottoman yoke for a century and a half. Had Peter agreed to the initial proposals of the Sultan, the border with Turkey would have passed along the Danube, and instead of the hostile Romania, the empire would have had friendly Moldavian principalities. Unfortunately, another southern expedition of Prince Bekovich-Cherkassky in 1717 also ended in failure, when his 3,000-strong detachment was destroyed due to the perfidy of the Khiva Khan. The Persian campaign was more successful. The tsar gathered an army of 80,000 and in the spring of 1722 set off for Persia along the coast of the Caspian Sea. The Russian army occupied the entire coast without a fight, and nine khanates became part of Russia. Later, after the death of Peter, on the orders of Biron, the Russian troops were withdrawn, and the entire coast came under the rule of the Persian Shah. Only in a hundred years, Russian troops will occupy northern Azerbaijan.

It is obvious that the Europeanization and modernization of the Russian army in the first quarter of the XVIII century. laid the foundations for the future military successes of our country. On the other hand, it should be noted that Peter's military reforms were largely inconsistent and chaotic. This led to the inconsistency of military reforms in the future.

Prolonged military campaigns exhausted the draft population, laid down an unbearable burden on the economic life of Russia. The tax burden increased three times, new taxes and duties appeared. Peasants, townspeople and merchants went bankrupt, the merchant class was hit hard by the introduction of trade monopolies. In 1722-1724. the first revision was carried out, during which the final unification of various social groups took place, the attachment of all taxable estates to the state tax was completed, and the passport system was introduced. It has survived to this day as a relic of the feudal system.

The strengthening of state-tax oppression caused a whole series of major uprisings and rebellions. Among them, the Streltsy rebellion in 1699 in Moscow, the armed uprisings of townsmen and workers, archers, soldiers in Astrakhan in 1705-1706, as well as the Cossack uprising of K.I. Bulavin in 1707-1708, peasant unrest in Bashkiria and other parts of the country. All of them were brutally suppressed, the active participants were hanged and exiled to Siberia. Social contradictions were exacerbated by the presence of a religious schism and the oppression of dissidents. Among the Old Believers, who were subjected to severe persecution, mass self-immolations began. Tsar Peter was declared by them the Antichrist, and his reign marked the beginning of the end of the world. It should be noted that such innovations as shaving beards, the wearing of which was revered in Rus' as a symbol of the image of God, Peter's active participation in the "Drunken and All-Joking Cathedral", the introduction of new holidays in a European way, the confiscation of church bells for casting cannons and other actions of the authorities - all this created fertile ground for indignation and riots. An exodus began from the central regions to the outskirts, which led to the impoverishment of the center of Russia. More than 200 thousand peasants were on the run. To suppress rebellious moods, Peter in 1724 introduces a law on the settlement of regiments. Now the entire army was quartered in all provinces of the country. The military command oversaw the collection of the poll tax, other taxes and fees, and the army performed numerous police functions. She also oversaw the observance of the passport regime. These measures, as well as the transition to a poll tax, led to the fact that budget revenues increased from 1.6 million rubles. up to 8.2 million

The emperor became an innovator in a new field for his contemporaries. With the personal participation of Pyotr Alekseevich, Feofan Prokopovich developed the patriotic ideology of “serving the Fatherland”, which he set forth in the treatises “The Word of the Tsar’s Power and Honor” and “The Truth of the Monarch’s Will”. The tsar believed that he was the first worker for the good of the Fatherland, and all the rest - from the generalissimo and the chancellor to soldiers, sailors, peasants and philistines - should, without sparing their stomachs, constantly and unswervingly fulfill their duty to the Russian state. Thus, the supporting structures of the cult of the state were laid, which in various guises and modifications has existed to this day.

The cruelty of the tsar, his rigorism caused dissatisfaction of part of the boyars, which was expressed in the conspiracy of Tsarevich Alexei (1690-1718). The real Alexei, unlike the literary and cinematic hero, was a copy of his father. However, they did not develop a personal relationship. After a forced marriage to Charlotte-Christina-Sophia of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel (1694-1715), on October 12, 1715, Alexei had a son, Peter, the future emperor (1727-1730). At the same time, the tsar demanded that Alexei either change his behavior or abdicate the throne and go to a monastery. In August 1716, Alexei fled to Austria, where his brother-in-law Charles VI ruled. On behalf of the king, Count P.A. In 1718 Tolstoy lured Alexei onto a ship in Naples and sent him to Moscow. At the request of the king, Alexei officially abdicated and handed over fifty of his accomplices. The tsar brutally dealt with them, personally subjected A.V. to the wheel. Kikin. On June 26, the prince died after severe torture.

In his personal life, as well as in public activity, Peter was full of contradictions. The king led both measured and wild life. He got up at four in the morning, cooked his own food, made a fire and dressed himself. Then at six o'clock he went to the shipyards, to the barracks, at seven o'clock he began to solve state affairs in the Senate, two hours later he led the work of the Military Council, and an hour later he went around the colleges, punishing negligent officials with a heavy cane. At one o'clock in the afternoon he ate simple food. After dinner, I rested for two hours, then worked in the office, wrote and edited decrees, letters, notes. In total, he wrote more than 25 thousand documents, including 2400 laws. He spent his evenings either at work in his studio or at official receptions. After seven o'clock, the tsar held assemblies and receptions, where complex and delicate matters were resolved in an informal setting. After nine o'clock, when the general bacchanalia began, the king silently, in English, went to bed. The next day, regardless of how much he drank, he got up with a fresh head, energetic and full of the most ambitious plans.

Such a hectic lifestyle undermined the powerful health of the emperor. In addition, he did not deny himself female affection and unofficially had a whole harem of mistresses, whom he later liked to marry his associates. So, for example, in the marriage of Maria Matveeva, the former passion of Peter, and Alexander Rumyantsev, the future illustrious commander Peter Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, whom contemporaries considered the son of the king, was born.

Peter I managed to combine the eastern despotism of the Moscow kingdom and the western bureaucracy into one contradictory whole, to create a new type of society, where everything was subordinated to the interests of a dynamically developing imperial state. Another defect of Peter's reforms was that his reforms were carried out primarily in the interests of the nobility and the highest bureaucracy, for the vast majority of the population of the empire they were excessively burdensome and incomprehensible. The process of Europeanization at that time was burdened with many prejudices, hasty and ill-conceived decisions, reflecting the impulsive and despotic nature of the main reformer. Unfortunately, historical experience, positive lessons and a reminder of the negative consequences of these transformations were not always in demand by subsequent reformers. As V.O. Klyuchevsky, "history is a strict lady, and for ignorance of her laws she punishes with all severity and mercilessness."

2. Peter the Great through the eyes of contemporaries and historians

The era of Peter the Great in the history of Russia, the personality of this outstanding statesman, commander, diplomat, enjoys attention both in domestic and foreign historical science.

The study of this era has a rich tradition - after all, it began during the lifetime of the greatest reformer; now literature about Peter the Great and his time can make up a whole library. Great achievements in many areas of public and state life, the transformation of Russia from a country located on the outskirts of Europe into a great world power, which has become a kind of historical phenomenon, explain the steady increased interest in the era of Peter in world historical science.

Almost all the leading scientists - historians, specialists in the history of Russia abroad, from the eighteenth century to the present day, responded in one way or another to the events of Peter the Great's time. Foreign literature about Russia of the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, has some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler, the successes that were achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia with some underestimation or open disdain. Views have become widespread, according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness, savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became assistants to Peter the Great in carrying out the transformations.

The opposition between Russia and the countries of the West, the antithesis "Russia - West", "East - West", which is widespread in foreign, and partly domestic historical science, has an equally long tradition. The image of Russia and the USSR as an antipode to the West, European culture, often had a political orientation in addition to the historical one (especially during the Cold War).

It is worth noting that this applies not only to the works of the recent past, there was such a point of view in the pre-revolutionary period. Until now, one can find statements about the fundamental difference in the historical path of Russia in comparison with Western countries, the "different roots" of their historical traditions, the backward "Asian" nature of the economy, social life, culture of Russia, in contrast to the advanced European civilization, supposedly representing some kind of unity and opposed to what was and is in backward Russia. These two worlds are supposedly two “opposing” cultures.

Ideas about the fatal divergence of the historical paths of Russia and Western Europe (and the entire West in general) are fed, among other things, by the concepts according to which the formation of Russian statehood was strongly or even decisively influenced by Byzantine traditions, the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which played a role in that the development of Rus' and then Russia went in the opposite direction from Europe. Supporters of the so-called "Eurasian theory", whose roots go back to the state school and the Slavophiles, preach the idea that Russia, being a "mixture of East and West", remains a bridge between East and West.

Hence the statements about the beneficial effect of the Golden Horde on the evolution of statehood in North-Eastern Rus', about a certain symbiosis of the Horde and Rus', which left a strong imprint on the entire subsequent history of Russia in the tsarist and imperial eras. (To historians who share this opinion belongs, for example, LN Gumilyov.) In this work, the positions of Russian scientists of "statists", such as Solovyov, Bogoslovsky, will be considered. They can be grouped not according to historiographic directions and class attitudes, but according to the nature, content of their works (they are special or general), according to the positions of the authors, some of whom consider the era of Peter the Great against the background of the previous period of Russian history, others - comparing with the situation in the then Europe, third - in terms of its significance for the subsequent development of Russia.

2 . 1 Problems of historical understanding of Peter's reforms

A significant part of the historical literature about Russia in the 18th century is devoted to the reforms of Peter the Great; this is explained, for example, by the fact that pre-revolutionary historians considered the knot of problems associated with them as a key, central one in the history of Russia. After 1917, these problems faded into the background, but even in Soviet historiography, the Petrine era is considered one of the most important periods in the history of our state.

The interests of Western researchers focused primarily on the foreign policy of Russia and the biography of Peter the Great; after Napoleon, the tsar was characterized by them as the most striking person in the history of Europe, as "the most significant monarch of Europe of this century." The bulk of the literature on this topic consists of special works devoted to certain aspects of Peter's transformative activity. The conclusions contained in these works are for the most part incomparable due to differences in the objects of research, the approach of the authors to the topic, and similar factors. Thus, only a small part of the literature on this topic can participate in general discussions about the reforms of Peter the Great, but even it contains an extremely wide range of assessments. Perhaps the explanation for the extreme dissimilarity of points of view lies in the fact that the complexity, the complex nature of the topic, makes it impossible for an individual scientist to fully disclose it, and therefore many historians turn assessments of individual aspects of reforms into an integral part of the general characteristics of transformations, while giving them very different weights. .

No less diverse is the background against which researchers evaluate Peter's reforms. Three main directions can be distinguished here: some historians consider this topic mainly in comparison with the previous period of Russian history, most often immediately preceding the era of Peter the Great (late 17th-18th century), others compare the current situation with the situation in Europe at the beginning of the 18th century, while still others evaluate the historical significance of Peter's activities through the prism of the subsequent development of Russia. The first of these points of view naturally raises the question of the extent to which the Petrine era meant a break with the past (or, on the contrary, continued the development trends of the 17th century).

The second makes it necessary to pay increased attention to the discussion about foreign prototypes of reforms and their adaptation to Russian conditions.

The third point of view, which actualizes the question of the consequences of the reforms and their suitability as a model, is inferior to the first two in terms of scientific fruitfulness: thus, the reforms of Peter the Great became a favorite topic for public debate in pre-revolutionary Russia. This topic was thus politicized long before its scientific development began. Although there is an opinion expressed by P.N. Milyukov, that it is not the business of a historian to start arguing about whether the events of the past were positive or negative, that the historian must concentrate entirely on “his activity as an expert” revealing the authenticity of facts, nevertheless, few historians have succeeded in trying to get away from endless journalistic discussions about how harmful or useful Peter's reforms were, reprehensible or worthy of imitation from the point of view of morality or the interests of the nation. MM Bogoslovsky, in his factual biography of Peter, stated with regret that more or less generalizing assessments of the Petrine era were developed mainly under the influence of general philosophical systems that constantly intrude into the field of research sources. Apparently, this characterization of Bogoslovsky is quite suitable for assessing the entire history of the study of the topic that preceded it.

2. 2 Peter's reforms as the beginning of a new era in Russian history

In most review works, the Petrine period is regarded as the beginning of a new era in the history of Russia. However, strong disagreements reign among historians who are trying to answer the question to what extent the era of reforms meant a radical break with the past, and whether the new Russia differed from the old qualitatively. The boundaries dividing the participants in this discussion are largely historically conditioned, since as more and more thorough research was carried out both in the 17th and 18th centuries, the number of supporters of the concept increased, according to which the reforms of the time of Peter the Great are a natural result of the country's previous development.

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Sections: History and social studies

Lesson Objectives:

• Explain the reasons for Russia's socio-economic lagging behind European countries.
• Show the features of transformations in Russia.
• To form an idea of ​​the reasons for the start of reforms in the military field.
• To reveal the essence of the state reforms of Peter I;
• Assess the reforms.
• To continue the formation of students' skills to work with historical documents, analyze data, evaluate historical events.

Basic concepts: protectionism, mercantilism, export, import, manufacture, head tax, absolute monarchy.

Lesson equipment: map “Russian Empire under Peter I”, PC, m/m projector, screen, presentation.

During the classes

Teacher: Yes, indeed, times are not chosen, they live and die in them. Any person leaves a memory of himself in the hearts of his descendants. And from what kind of life a person has lived, such a memory will remain about him. People are judged by their actions, especially when it comes to a statesman. And one of the tasks today in the lesson is, having studied the reforms of Peter I, to evaluate his activities, to prove that the reforms were inevitable.

- Can you name the exact date of the transformation?

Students give different answers. Some believe that this is the end of the 80s, when the first regular regiments of the Russian army (Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky) were created. Others believe that this is 1695, when the construction of the Russian fleet began in Voronezh. Some students call the unfortunate defeat near Narva the beginning of the transformation.

Teacher: There will be no serious mistake here, because the exact date of the beginning of the transformations, of course, cannot be established. No, and Peter never had a document called the “Project of Reforms”. Of course, there were inconsistencies and individual improvisations in legislative activity. Sometimes Peter's pen was driven by feelings of anger and sovereign permissiveness. No wonder A.S. Pushkin will say a century later that some of the tsar's decrees were written with a whip. Some reforms were carried out not immediately, but over the years, others - in fits and starts, in between military operations. The war took a huge place in the life of Peter. No sooner had the Turkish company ended in 1700 than the Northern War began. In this interval there was a short but bloody war with Turkey in 1723. To wage these wars, a large, well-armed and trained army is needed. And Peter devoted an extraordinary amount of time to its creation and strengthening.

- What do you think, what crushing defeat of the Russian army made the reform urgent?

Teacher: Quite right - the defeat near Narva. Peter no longer had any doubts that the army should be built on other principles than before, recruiting and providing.

Teacher: Russia needed a regular army, similar to those that other European states had. The first step was taken as early as 1699, when volunteers from different social strata began to be recruited into the army. Immediately creating regular shelves from them. (A volunteer is a person who volunteers for military service). In 1705, Peter I takes the next step in military reform: he issues decrees on the termination of liberty (volunteers) and the transition to recruitment. (Recruitment is a way of recruiting the Russian regular army from the taxable class, which put up a certain number of recruits from their communities).

Teacher: Let's identify the main reasons for the reforms. (Slide 5)Application.

Discussion.

Teacher: What were the features of the transformations in Russia? (Slide 6)

Peter's reforms were aimed at the Europeanization of the internal life of Russian society and the modernization of the socio-economic and state system of Russia. (Slide 7)

Issues for discussion:(Slide 8)

1. What was the state of the economy on the eve of Peter's reforms?
2. What do you think are the reasons for the active intervention of the state in economic areas?
3. In what industries and why did manufactories begin to appear?
4. How did the Russian government manage to protect its industry from European competitors?

Teacher: Goals of economic reforms:

• Providing the army and navy with weapons, uniforms, equipment;
• Development of industry, overcoming economic backwardness;
• Development of domestic and foreign trade in Russia.

And as a result - the creation of manufactories and factories (75 metallurgical plants by the middle of the 8th century) (Slide 9)

(Slide 10) The state was the organizing force in the creation of domestic industry. A significant part of manufactories and factories were state-owned.

(Slide 11) Labor in factories.

(Slide 12) Features of state manufactories.

In the course of the reforms, there was a transition to the predominant use of forced labor of serfs in manufactories and factories. (Slide 13).

Teacher: What were the main directions of economic transformations. (Slide 14)

(Give definitions, write down in a notebook the concepts of protectionism, mercantilism).

In the trade policy of the state, two periods can be distinguished. (Slide 15, 16)

• I period (1700–1719)

The system of prohibitions, high duties and taxes. State monopoly on almost all types of goods.

Consequences:

1. Obtaining significant funds from the treasury for the needs of the army and navy.
2. The destruction of the old business ties of the merchants, the ruin of trading families

• II period (1719–1725)

Transition to politics mercantilism and protectionism- the accumulation of money in the country with the help of the patronage of domestic trade.

Consequences:

1. Development of trade. The excess of the export of goods over their import into the country.
2. Capital accumulation.
3. Growth of young Russian industry.

Teacher: Reforms of the state administrative apparatus. At the beginning of the 18th century, there was not even a capital in Russia, since Moscow ceased to be one, and St. Petersburg had not yet become one. And the only central authority was the emperor himself, but with whom? The orders ceased to exist (except for the military ones), in 1699 the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Tsar with the Near Office, and from 1708. "council of ministries". Peter wanted to create a temporary body of power that would govern the country during his travels around Russia and military campaigns.

Initial ideas for the transformation of the state apparatus of Peter I(Slide 17)

• The state is a creation of man, not of God.
• The country's governance system can be changed and improved.
• The state can take over part of the rights of society in the name of maintaining public order and security.

Basic principles of the activities of the new authorities(Slide 18)

• Functionality and strict regulation of activities
• Strict hierarchy of authorities

Teacher:

(Slide 19) Scheme of the Authorities and Administration in the 20–70s. 18th century

(Slide 20, 21) Senate.

(Slide 22, 23) Synod (The establishment of an absolute monarchy was accompanied by the loss of independence by the church - the subordination of the spiritual authority to the secular).

(Slide 24) Colleges.

The establishment of the Senate did not mean the creation of a new centralized administrative apparatus, designed to replace the old system of orders.
1712 - Peter 1 sends special expeditions abroad to study the experience of organizing collegiums in various branches of government.
1718 - a decree on the establishment of collegiums was signed

(The teacher organizes work with the class - filling in the table)

The activities of the board extended to the entire territory of Russia. The scope of duties of each college was more precisely limited and duplicated the work of other colleges, the colleges were subordinate to the emperor and the Senate; collegiums were subordinated to the local administrative apparatus.

Teacher: In the conditions of the Northern War, Peter 1 faced an acute shortage of funds. (Slide 25, 26)

Peter 1 solves this problem actively and quickly:

1. Begins development of the Nerchinsk silver-lead mines (1700).
2. Introduces new types of coins, including copper ones.
3. In 1711, a monetary reform was carried out, the minting of gold, silver, and copper coins. The silver content of the coins has been reduced by 20%.

The state was also interested in raising taxes.

• 1714- Household census of the population.
• 1718–1724. - A poll tax was introduced, instead of a tax from the yard.

Teacher: During the years of the reign of Peter I, grandiose economic and political changes took place. (Slide 27)Application

1. The country's industry has grown 11 times;
2. The number of manufactories increased by 7 times;
3. Peter purposefully sought to make Russia an advanced industrial power;
4. Russia occupied the 3rd place in Europe in metal smelting;
5. In agriculture, new tools and technologies were gradually introduced;
6. The turnover of foreign trade grew;
7. Increased trade within the country;
8. The subordination of the church to the state;
9. Accelerating the pace of socio-economic and cultural development of Russia;
10. The transformation of Russia into an empire with a powerful army and navy;
11. Improvement of the international position;
12. The formation of an absolute monarchy in Russia.

BUT there is another “side of the coin”:

1. Heavy taxes have led to poverty peasant farms;
2. Entrepreneurship did not develop because of serfdom;
3. The state played a major role in the economy;
4. There was conflict in society.
5. The suppression of the individual by the state.

Conclusion: The reforms of Peter I led

• to the establishment in Russia of an absolute monarchy - a form of government in which the legislative, judicial and executive power in the country belonged entirely to the head of state (emperor). The power of the king is not limited by anyone or anything.
• Significantly accelerated the economic development of Russia.
• But at the same time, the reasons for Russia's future backwardness were already emerging in these same reforms.

Homework:

• § 15, 16
• Fill in the table

The value of the reforms of Peter 1

Municipal state educational institution

"Pokosninskaya secondary school"

research project

"Living memory of descendants",

dedicated to the 70th anniversary of the VICTORY

Performed:

Kovaleva Marina Ivanovna,

primary school teacher

MKOU "Pokosninskaya secondary school"

S. Pokosnoe

Project passport

1. Project name	Research project "Living Memory of Descendants"
2. Name of the organization; Name of the project manager, position	Municipal state educational institution "Pokosninskaya secondary school" Kovaleva Marina Ivanovna, class teacher
3. Actual address	Irkutsk region, Bratsk district, Pokosnoe village, Sibirskaya st., 22
	Kovaleva Marina Ivanovna - class teacher 4 "B" class
5. Project implementation period
6. Summary of the project idea	Objective of the project Project tasks: Collection of material about veterans of the Great Patriotic War, residents of the village of Koblyakovo. Planned result Making design products by students (presentation, report); Performance of the song.

Relevance of the selected project topic

"We must bow to the ground

our Soviet people.

Everywhere and everywhere he did his best,

to bring closer the hour of victory over fascism."

G.K. Zhukov.

For the inhabitants of our country, the word "Victory" is filled with the deepest meaning. It mixed the memory of the survivors and the dead, tears of joy and sorrow. Years, decades pass, generations change, but is it possible to consign to oblivion the feat of warriors who defended not only our lives, but also the very title of a person who wanted to trample on fascism.

The Great Patriotic War is one of those rare historical events, the memory of which does not fade with time. These terrible and at the same time heroic days of 1941-1945 are moving further and further away from us; there are fewer and fewer veterans among us who won that war. However, the memory of the events of seventy years ago has not gone anywhere; she stays with us. But for the current rising generation, the Second World War is a distant past, an event that, according to their worldview, has no direct relation to modern life for them. Therefore, it is very important that children know about people who, at the cost of their lives or their exploits, told the truth about the war, imbued with respect and pride for the surviving war veterans and home front workers. Today it is especially important to return to the origins of our great victory, to comprehend the lessons and values ​​of this greatest event of the century, which is of great importance both for preserving the memory of the legendary defenders of the Motherland and for educating the younger generation in selfless service to the Motherland and its people.

Within a few months, a wealth of material about veterans of the Great Patriotic War was collected. I believe that it is necessary to continue the work that has been started, which, however, will allow:

better learn the history of the Great Patriotic War;

draw students' attention to the main stages of the Great Patriotic War, the historical role of the Soviet Union in the defeat of Nazi Germany;

to educate a citizen-patriot of their homeland on the example of the history of their family and native land;

to develop the cognitive interest of students, to form the skills of research activities;

to develop the communicative qualities of students in the search and collection of information;

get to know the history of your family, your native land better;

expanding the horizons of students.

Purpose and objectives of the project:

Objective of the project : expanding students' knowledge of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

Project tasks:

Collection of material about veterans of the Great Patriotic War, residents of the village of Koblyakovo.

Raising prestige among the younger generation of the feat of the Soviet people during the war years, awareness of the significance of the Victory for the country and the whole world.

Development of cognitive interest of students.

Development of communication skills of students.

Development of skills in research and project activities.

Participation in various competitions on this topic.

Object of study: grandfather and uncles - veterans of the Great Patriotic War, who lived in the village of Koblyakovo in the post-war period.

Subject of study: fate of veterans.

Research hypothesis: the study of archival materials and the organization of search work will allow us to learn more about the life of veterans.

Research methods: work with literature, Internet resources, study of family archive documents, analysis, generalization.

Scientific novelty: for the first time collected and summarized information about the veterans of the Great Patriotic War, who lived in the village of Koblyakovo in the post-war period.

Planned result

The main outcomes of the project should be:

Making project products by students (multimedia presentations, reports);

A positive trend towards an increase in the number of students included in the implementation of this project.

Performance of the song.

Results of participation in competitions.

Project implementation technology

1. Stages of project implementation

Preparatory (beginning of December 2014)

Awareness of the relevance of the problem;

Creation of a creative team;

The work of the creative team on the creation of the project - a draft of "My Ancestors";

First stage: hands-on (mid-December 2014)

The work of the creative group for the search and collection of information, the organization of research activities.

Second phase: final - analytical (January 2015)

Learning the song with students "We walk like soldiers"

Analysis of project activity.

Reflection.

Plan of the main activities for the implementation of the project

Timing	Events, direction, activity	Responsible
Preparatory stage
Beginning of December 2014	Creation of a creative team for the development of the project. Awareness of the urgency of the problem. The work of the creative team on the creation of the project - a draft of "Grandfathers of my mother";	Kovaleva M.I.
First stage
Mid December 2014	The work of the creative group in the search and collection of information, the organization of research activities of students.	Kovaleva M.I.
Second phase
January 2015	Learning the song "We walk like soldiers" Summarizing the work on the implementation of the project. Analysis of project activity. Reflection.	Kovaleva M.I.

Resource provision. Resource types

Informational resources: material collected in December last year, personal archives, the archive of the village library, information obtained by the project participants during research and conversations, Internet resources.

Human resources: Labor veterans, school teachers, residents of the village of Koblyakovo.

Material and technical resources: computer, multimedia, teaching materials for making multimedia presentations, for working with Microsoft Office, Microsoft Office PowerPoint, digital camera, home digital resources.

3. Target groups of the project

	Qualitative composition of the target groups	Compound
	The teachers of the school Pokosnoe	Kovaleva Marina Ivanovna
	Teachers of the school in the village of Koblyakovo	Virt Olga Ivanovna (my sister)
	Employees of the library of the village of Koblyakovo	Zueva Olga Vladimirovna
	Labor veterans of the village of Koblyakovo	Cheremnykh Lyubov Mikhailovna (my mother)

Project management

Organization of project management and control over the course of its implementation.

5.1. Managing the activities of all project participants performs the following functions:

information and analytical;

organizational;

5.2. The organization and correction of activities for the implementation of the project "Living Memory of Descendants" is carried out by classroom teacher. Responsible for the implementation of the project are Kovaleva Marina Ivanovna.

Social evaluation of the project

The social assessment of the project can be given:

Veterans of the Great Patriotic War and pedagogical work.

Families of students.

Graduates of the school, depending on the degree of their active citizenship.

the pedagogical community.

other members of the community in the village.

Results of participation in competitions.

Estimate of the project "Living Memory of Descendants"

	Event	Types of expenses
	A trip to the village of Koblyakovo	Gasoline, gas	2000 rubles
			2000 rubles

The result of work on the project "Living Memory of Descendants"

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The son of Irakli Moiseevich, the artist who depicted the poster “The Motherland Calls”, recalls: “The poster hung at assembly points and train stations, at the entrance of factories and in military trains, in kitchens, in houses and on fences. For soldiers and officers, he became a portrait of the Mother, in which everyone saw the features of a dear face ... In her hand, the Motherland holds the oath of a serviceman, reminding her "children" of the sworn duty. The text of the military oath reads: "I, a citizen of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, joining the ranks of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army, take an oath and solemnly swear to be an honest, brave, disciplined, vigilant fighter, strictly keep military and state secrets, implicitly comply with all military regulations and orders of commanders and superiors . I swear to conscientiously study military affairs, to protect military and people's property in every possible way, and to the last breath to be devoted to my People, my Soviet Motherland and the Workers 'and Peasants' Government. And everyone who was over 18 went to the front, everyone who was under 18, but they wanted to defend their homeland, their loved ones.

(4 slide)

This war continued for 1418 days.

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1418 days of the feat of the Soviet people on the fronts and in the rear.

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1418 days of murder and abuse of the Soviet people.

(9 slide)

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1418 days of destruction and destruction of Soviet cities and villages.

The German attack on the USSR ended in a protracted war that claimed many lives and actually brought down the country's economy, which was not ready for large-scale military operations.

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But still, the Soviet troops managed to gain an advantage and launch a counteroffensive.

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My mother's grandfather and two uncles participated in this war.

(17 slide)

Cheremnykh Nikolai Alekseevich - my mother's great-uncle, on my mother's side. Born in the village of Koblyakovo in 1919. Before being drafted into the army, he worked on a collective farm. In 1938 he was drafted into the army, served in the Far East, Curly station. In 1940 he was transferred to the Amur and sent to the school of junior commanders. After completing the course in 1941, he was sent to Kuznetsk, where the 120th rifle brigade was formed. The formed brigade was sent near Moscow to protect it. In the first battle near Moscow, Nikolai Alekseevich was wounded. 1.5 months was treated in the hospital. After that he served in the 5th tank corps. He fought, was a gun commander, knocked out German tanks. In the battle near Kozelsk, he was severely shell-shocked and ended up in the hospital. After the cure, he was sent to the 311th air division. He fought on the IL attack aircraft, the second gunner-radio operator. Has 28 sorties. For military merit, he was awarded the medal "For Courage", two orders of the "Red Star" and multiple awards. In the area of ​​the Kursk Bulge, Nikolai Alekseevich received a third wound. After the hospital, February 2, 1944 was completely commissioned and returned home. Since then, until his retirement, he worked as an accountant, storekeeper, and accountant. He devoted all his knowledge and skills to agriculture. In 1993, at the age of 74, Nikolai Alekseevich died. Nikolai Alekseevich has a sister, Olga Alekseevna, who turned 92 on January 14, 2015, she is an old resident of the village of Koblyakovo.

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Cheremnykh Ivan Mikhailovich And Alexander Mikhailovich - siblings, cousins ​​of my mother's uncle, on the paternal side. Ivan Mikhailovich was born in 1919, a native of the village of Koblyakovo, Bratsk district. Service in the army began in 1930 with a call for military service in the Belarusian Military District. He commanded a machine gun company, served in the headquarters of a separate ski battalion. After the death of the battalion commander, he took command of the battalion, having by this time the rank of captain. Ivan Mikhailovich was awarded 5 orders and 10 medals. After returning from the front, he worked as an instructor in the Bratsk District Committee of the CPSU. Then, among the thirty thousand communists, Ivan Mikhailovich headed the collective farm in Koblyakovo, and worked as chairman of the state farm organization. Since 1961 worked as a branch manager, then as chairman of the executive committee of the Koblyakovsky village council until his retirement. As a pensioner, he worked in the forestry for 10 years. In 1995 , Ivan Mikhailovich died at the age of 76. Alexander Mikhailovich was born in 1920, a native of the village of Koblyakovo, Bratsk district, brother of Ivan Mikhailovich. According to his brother, Alexander Mikhailovich was sent to take the “tongue”, but he was ambushed and taken prisoner. He sat in a concentration camp, then Alexander Mikhailovich was released and sent to serve in the troops, who were sent on very dangerous missions. After the war, he returned home, got married, worked. He has many awards and medals. In 2007, at the age of 86, Alexander Mikhailovich died.

(19 slide)

On May 9 our country will celebrate the 70th anniversary of the Victory Day. Our people won the Great Victory in the Patriotic War from 1941-1945. This victory was not easy. The Nazis destroyed and burned hundreds of cities, tens of thousands of settlements, killed millions of people.

Many years have passed... My mother's grandfather and mother's uncles are no longer alive. Few photographs have survived. But in the memory of relatives, fellow villagers, there are still memories of these people - people with a capital letter.

For myself, I learned and understood the most important thing: these were wonderful people who studied and worked in their native village before the war. From the beginning of the war, they immediately went to the front: someone went through the whole country, through the whole war, all the way to Berlin. But they defended their land, their relatives from the enemy. And after returning from the war, they continued to work in the difficult post-war period, helping families and fellow villagers.

I learned that my grandfathers were respected, hardworking, cheerful, kind and decent people.

A huge sense of pride overwhelms me when I talk about them, I want us, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, to remember our grandfathers, great-grandfathers, and correspond to them.

(20 slide)

A.A. Tvardovsky "House by the road"

The war has passed, the suffering has passed,
But pain calls out to people:
Come on people never
Let's not forget about it.

May the memory of her be true,
Store, about this flour,
And the children of today's children,
And our grandchildren grandchildren.

Let everything that life is full of
In everything that is dear to the heart,
We will be given a reminder
About what was in the world.

Then to forget it
Generations did not dare.
Then, in order for us to be happier,
And happiness is not oblivion!

I want to end my speech with a song"We walk like soldiers" to be performed by the students of my class (Music and lyrics by Dmitry Trubachev)

We grow up as brave boys

The time will come - we will all go to the army,

We will securely protect our homeland,

So that people can sleep peacefully in it.

Chorus: And while we walk like soldiers,

One, two left - we go,

So that we can stand guard over the Motherland,

We need to harden the body strictly,

To exercise and walk every day,

We are all friendly and brave guys,

One, two left - we go,

Yes, even beautifully, we sing harmoniously.

Conclusion

The research work is dedicated to veterans, people with different destinies, who have passed the front lines. They are the pride of the village of Koblyakovo.

The complexity and uniqueness of the work lies in the value of the collected materials: photographs, documents, memories of the inhabitants of the village of Koblyakovo.

As a result of the collection and analysis of information, it was possible to learn about the life of fellow countrymen - veterans, to identify military routes and the history of military awards. Based on the found material, a presentation was created.

I believe that I have achieved my goal, having solved all the tasks put forward. The hypothesis was confirmed.

Used Literature and Resources

http :// info wow . do . am › photo / photos

http :// war album.ru› War › Eastern front› Start wars WithUSSR

http :// images.yandex.ru› photo attack on USSR fascists

http :// pensioner . en › news… moya… poster "Motherland is calling"

http :// history notes . en › napadenie - germany - na sssr / photo attack on USSR fascists

http :// pretich 2005. people . en › map - war / war - vov /…

http :// A.A. Tvardovskyanswer . mail . en › question /85743274 Roadhouse (Chapter 7)

Cheremnykh Lyubov Mikhailovna's personal archive

1 slide

Lecture 4 Topic: Russia in the era of Peter's reforms. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms. The essence of the reforms of Peter I The results of the reforms and their consequences for the Russian economy.

2 slide

Reforms of Peter I 1682 - 1725 Prerequisites: Underdeveloped economy Domination of feudal-serf relations Poor development of international trade routes Cumbersome administrative apparatus Weak army Underdevelopment in the field of science and education Reforms: Public administration Economy Social sphere Military reform Culture

3 slide

Transformations of Peter I economics social sphere culture development of manufactories decrees on sessional and ascribed peasants 1721 establishment of workshops and guilds 1722 the introduction of a poll tax instead of the household code of 1718 - 1724. pursuing a policy of protectionism and mercantilism Development of domestic and foreign trade State peasants 1722 division of merchants into guilds; establishment of a passport regime in 1724. “Table of Ranks” 1722 introduction of Western European culture secular education system new printing houses publication of textbooks new calendar (since January 1, 1700) establishment of the Academy of Sciences 1724

4 slide

Military reform Recruitment of the army on the basis of recruitment sets Creation of unified military governing bodies Introduction of a new organization of the army Unified system of training and education (military schools) Re-equipment Creation of a regular navy Introduction of a uniform dress code

5 slide

Development of industry State intervention Encouragement of private enterprise Manufactories: - what: metallurgical, mining, weapons, sawmills, cloth, leather ... - where: Ural, Tula, Lipetsk, Karelia, Belozerye ... - names: Nevyansky, Kamensky, Alapaevsky. .. metallurgical factories Decree on the organization of craft shops in 1722!

6 slide

The reform of the administration system in 1700 - the abolition of the patriarchate in 1703. - the foundation of St. Petersburg 1708-1710. - provincial reform of 1711. - liquidation of the Boyar Duma and the establishment of the ruling Senate 1718 - 1721. - Establishment of collegiums in 1719. - division into provinces in 1720. - Establishment of the Chief Magistrate in 1721. - Establishment of the Holy Synod in 1722. - Establishment of a prosecutor's office and police

7 slide

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9 slide

10 slide

The main directions of financial transformations under Peter I Consistent implementation of the principles of fiscal sovereignty of the state; Unification of taxes and fees and maximum coverage of payers; A clear division of society into taxable and tax-exempt estates and an increase in obstacles to inclusion in tax-exempt estates; Replacement of in-kind duties of the population with cash collections; Systematization of income and expenses, the transition to the regular compilation of state. budget; Unification of the monetary system and strengthening of the state. control

11 slide

Reform of the monetary system under Peter I. State monopoly on minting coins Reducing the weight of the silver kopeck 1 ruble = 1 taler 1698. - 1 silver kop. = 0.28g 1 silver thaler Decimal principle: 1 ruble = 10 hryvnias = 100 kopecks fifty kopecks = 50 kopecks half-fifty kopecks = 25 kopecks nickel = 5 kopecks altyn = 3 kopecks five-altyn = 15 kopecks ) Issuance of copper money: a coin and a half coin. cop. Issue of gold coins in 1701: Caesar's rubles and chervonets