M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin occupies a special place in Russian literature. The art of satire requires a bold, uncompromising feat of a writer who has decided to dedicate his life to the merciless debunking of evil. M. S. Olminsky was sure: "In our time there can no longer be any doubt that Shchedrin belongs to one of the first places in the history of Russian literature."
The bold look of the writer made it possible to look at the world differently. Saltykov mastered both large and small satirical genres: a novel with an interesting plot and deeply felt images, a feuilleton, a fairy tale, dramatic work, story, parody. The writer introduced world literature satirical chronicle, he was true to his genre, the "cycle". An important place in Saltykov's genre preferences belongs to the novel. “We have such a notion of a novel that it cannot exist without a love plot ... I consider my Modern Idyll, Golovlevs, Diary of a Provincial, and others to be real novels: in them, despite the fact that that they are composed, as it were, of separate stories, whole periods of our life are taken, ”said the author of“ The History of a City ”. One critic wrote in 1881: “For the future historian of Russian society, when he approaches the era we are living through, there will be no more precious treasure than the works of Mr. Saltykov, in which he will find a living and true picture of the modern social system ... Saltykov in throughout the history of Russian literature knows no equal when it comes to capturing the typical features of the time experienced by society, in order to vividly notice one or another new emerging type and illuminate it with all the brightness of his powerful talent.
M. Gorky argued that "it is impossible to understand the history of Russia in the 19th century without the help of Shchedrin." The theme of Russia has always interested and attracted Russian writers with its uniqueness: A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, A.A. Blok, S.A. Yesenin ... But their Russia was real, she lived, suffering and rejoicing, loving and hating, forgiving and pitying . Saltykov's Russia is special, it can be understood only by thinking deeply and penetrating into its secrets, bringing it closer to yourself, and then the words of the satirist will find their attentive reader: “I love Russia to the point of pain in my heart and I can’t even think of myself anywhere but Russia.<...>It is this cult, which is based on heartache, that is the truly Russian cult. The heart hurts, it hurts, but behind all that, it constantly rushes to the source of its pain ... "
It is impossible to understand the idea of the "History of one city" without penetrating into its artistic essence, without a deep understanding of its originality and originality. The work is written in the form of a narration by a chronicler-archivist about the past of the city of Glupov, but the historical framework is limited - from 1731 to 1826.
Saltykov-Shchedrin did not follow the historical outline of the development of Russia, but some events, as well as historically recognizable persons, influenced the plot of the novel and the originality of artistic images. "The History of a City" is not a satire on the past, because the writer was not interested in a purely historical topic: he wrote about the present in Russia. However, some rulers of the city of Glupov resemble real monarchs: Paul I can be recognized in the image of Negodyaev, Alexander I - in the image of Sadtilov, Nicholas I - in the image of Interception-Zalikhvatsky; some mayors are identified with statesmen: Benevolensky - with Speransky, Grim-Burcheev - with Arakcheev. In a letter to Pypin, Saltykov explained: "The historical form of the story was convenient for me because it allowed me to more freely refer to known phenomena of life." The connection with historical material is palpable in the chapter "The Tale of the Six Mayors". Palace coups after the death of Peter I were "organized" mainly by women, and some of the empresses can be seen in the images of the "evil Iraidka", "dissolute Clementine", "fat-meat German Stockfish", "Dunka-thick-footed", "Matryonka-Nostril". Who exactly is veiled is not important, because the writer was not interested in specific persons, but in their actions, according to which the arbitrariness of those in power was carried out. In a letter to Pypin, Saltykov says: “Maybe I am mistaken, but in any case I am completely sincerely mistaken that the same foundations of life that existed in the 18th century still exist today.”
Starting to work on the novel, Saltykov-Shchedrin admitted: "The era horrifies me, the historical situation horrifies ..."
Talking supposedly about past times, the writer nevertheless spoke about the problems of contemporary society, about what worried him as an artist and citizen of his country.
Having stylized the events of a hundred years ago, giving them the features of the epoch of the 18th century, Saltykov-Shchedrin speaks in different guises: first, he narrates on behalf of the archivists, the compilers of the Foolovsky Chronicler, then on behalf of the author, who acts as a publisher and commentator of archival materials.
Some of Saltykov's contemporaries suggested a relationship between the novel History of a City and Pushkin's History of the Village of Goryukhin. Perhaps the emergence of such a hypothesis was due to the presence of a form of parodic chronicle-historical narrative in Pushkin and Saltykov-Shchedrin. The satirist turned to history in order to smooth out the inevitable clashes with tsarist censorship, and also in order to show the historically established policy of monarchical despotism, which remained unchanged for many years.
Approaching the presentation inventively, Saltykov-Shchedrin managed to combine the plots and motifs of legends, fairy tales, and other folklore works and simply, in an accessible way, convey anti-monarchist ideas to the reader in pictures of folk life and everyday concerns of Russians.
The novel opens with the chapter “Appeal to the reader”, stylized as an old style, in which the writer acquaints his readers with his goal: “to depict successively the mayors who were appointed to the city of Foolov from the Russian government at different times.”
The chapter "On the Root of the Origin of the Foolovites" is written as a retelling of the chronicle. The beginning is an imitation of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, a listing of well-known historians of the 19th century who have directly opposite views on the historical process (N. I. Kostomarov and S. M. Solovyov). The prehistoric times of Foolov seem absurd and unrealistic, since the actions of the peoples who lived in ancient times are far from conscious acts. Although the relationship of peoples in the novel by Saltykov-Shchedrin is not only a parody of a historical legend, but also a satire on ideas: “great power” and populist.
The “Inventory to the Mayors” is a commentary on subsequent chapters, and, according to biographical data, each ruler of Glupov passed away for a completely ridiculous reason: one was bitten by bedbugs, another was torn to pieces by dogs, a third had a head instrument spoiled, a fourth was killed by gluttony, a fifth tried to understand the Senate decree and died from exertion, etc. Each image is individual and at the same time typical - Saltykov-Shchedrin is considered an innovator in the development of satirical typification methods.
The story about the activities of Foolov's mayors opens with the chapter "Organchik", which tells about Brudast, whose image embodies the main features of government despotism, stupidity and narrow-mindedness. "Aesopian language" allows the writer to call Brodystoy (and autocratic power with him) a fool, a scoundrel, an executioner and a vicious dog.
The image of Organchik is confirmed by many years of observation of the deeds of statesmen: two words are enough to achieve the goals - “I will ruin!” and “I will not tolerate!”, which explains the heartlessness and indifference of the monarchical government. The simplest wooden mechanism, with the help of which Brodysty shouts out his orders-commands, is an exaggeration, the image of this mayor, like the others, is fantastic and exaggerated. But it is sad that the actions performed by a person with a wooden head were no different from the activities of real people.
“The Tale of the Six Mayors” is not only a satire on the reign of crowned heads, and in some cases of adventurers who lived in the 18th century, but also a parody of numerous works on a historical theme that appeared in the 60s.
The chapter "News about Dvoekurov" contains a hint at Alexander I. Dvoekurov made it mandatory to use mustard and bay leaves. But the biography of the mayor did not reach his contemporaries, who could understand the theory of his government.
The next mayor - Ferdyshchenko - acts in the chapters "Straw City" and "Fantastic Traveler". And acquaintance with him takes place in the chapter "Hungry City". Disasters take on a huge scale, and the people silently endure these trials of fate and do not try to protect their interests. The satire on the peasant takes on the strength of the indignation of the author, who does not tolerate the humiliation of the Russian people, dearly loved and respected by him. The impudence and hypocrisy of the government are manifested in the oppression of their own people. Fires, floods, famine - everything happened to the Russian peasant, who still does not know how to defend his interests.
Vasilisk Semenovich Borodavkin, who replaced Ferdyshchenko, most of all resembles Nicholas I. “Wars for enlightenment” - even the very title of the chapter emphasizes the incompatibility of these two concepts. Wartkin demanded that the Foolovites sow Persian chamomile. Via tin soldiers he waged his wild wars, for example, burned thirty-three villages and with the help of these measures collected arrears of two rubles and a half. The cruelty and senselessness of the actions of the mayor are shocking in their inhumanity. And yet fiction is very similar to the truth, because, as Saltykov-Shchedrin said: “There are miracles in which, upon careful examination, one can notice a rather bright real basis.”
The next chapter, "The era of dismissal from wars," contains a story about the mayor Ne-godyaev. According to the "Inventory", he "paved the streets paved with his predecessors", that is, he tried to hide the deeds of his predecessors. The next mayor, Mikaladze, abolished strict discipline, supported the elegance of manners and affectionate manners. The reader meets with the mayor Benevolensky (the literal translation of his last name from Latin is “wishing well”) after parting with Mikaladze. A well-known legislator, upset by the ban on the publication of his laws, composes sermons in the house of the merchant Raspopova. But the end of Benevolensky's career is predetermined: suspected of treason and connections with Napoleon, he goes into exile.
Pimple - the mayor with a stuffed head - is an equally entertaining creation of Saltykov-Shchedrin. In a letter to A. N. Pypin, the satirist wrote: “I can explain each of my essays what they are directed against, and prove that they are directed precisely against those manifestations of arbitrariness and savagery that every honest person is disgusted with. So, for example, a mayor with a stuffed head does not mean a person with a stuffed head, but precisely a mayor who controls the destinies of many thousands of people. This is not even laughter, but a tragic situation.”
In the introduction to the chapter "Adoration of Mammon and Repentance" some generalizations and conclusions are given. We are talking about a people that lives, despite the mortal battle. "One of the ... heavy historical eras, probably experienced by Foolov in the time described by the chronicler, ”the writer reports. Further story about the mayors - in the continuation of the chapter.
The staff officer who appeared in the previous chapter would later take his place as mayor and leave an indelible mark on the history of Foolov and the life of the Foolovites. This officer was Ugryum-Burcheev. His appearance, his gaze was striking implausibility. The image of Grim-Gurcheev is a symbol of oppression and arbitrariness. In the delirium of the mayor, the theory of turning the world into a barracks and dividing people into companies and battalions, the dream of all his predecessors who want power at all costs is embodied.
Gloomy-Grumbling destroyed the city, forced people to stop the movement of the river. It was only when they looked into each other's eyes that the Foolovites realized how insignificant were the plans of the mayor and how absurd they were in their long-suffering. Most of all, the ruler's order to appoint spies was outraged - it was "a drop that overflowed the cup." Nature came to the aid of the inhabitants - it - and destroyed what had grown over many years of hard labor of the people and the unpunished behavior of the authorities.
"The History of a City" is a prophecy of the inevitable collapse of the autocratic power based on the oppression of the people, desecration of their honor and non-observance of their rights and freedoms.
A correct understanding of the ideological content of the "History of a City" is impossible without understanding its bizarre artistic originality. The work is written in the form of an annalistic narrative about persons and events dated to 1731-1826. The satirist indeed creatively transformed some historical facts the indicated years. In the images of the city governors, there are similarities with the real figures of the monarchy: Negodyaev resembles Paul I, Sadilov - Alexander I, Perechvat-Zalikhvatsky - Nicholas I. The entire chapter about Gloomy-Grumbling is full of allusions to the activities of Arakcheev, the all-powerful reactionary associate of Paul I and Alexander I. However, "The History of a City" is not a satire on the past at all. Saltykov-Shchedrin himself said that he did not care about history, he meant the life of his time. Without speaking directly with historical topics, Shchedrin repeatedly used the historical form of narration about contemporary issues, spoke about the present in the form of the past tense. A brilliant example of the application of this kind of technique, genetically ascending to Pushkin's "History of the Village of Goryukhin", is provided by the "History of a City". Here Shchedrin stylized the events of his contemporary life as the past, giving them some external features of the epoch of the 16th century. The story goes in places on behalf of the archivist, the compiler of the "Glupovsky Chronicler", in bridges - from the author, who this time acts in the ironically accepted role of the publisher and commentator of archival documents. The "publisher", who declared that during his work "from the first minute to the last<…>did not leave the formidable image of Mikhail Petrovich Pogodin " sarcastically parodied with his comments the style of semi-official historiographers. “The historical form of the story,” Shchedrin explained, “provided me some convenience, as well as the form of the story on behalf of the archivist” The historical form was chosen by the satirist in order, firstly, to avoid unnecessary cavils of the tsarist censorship, and secondly, to show that the essence of monarchical despotism has not in the least been weakened over the course of many decades. The manner of a naive philistine chronicler also allowed the writer to freely and generously include elements of fantasy, legendary fairy tale, folklore material in political satire, to reveal “history” in pictures of everyday folk life that are simple in meaning and bizarre in form, to express anti-monarchist ideas in their most naive and because the most popular, persuasive form, accessible to a wide range of readers. Drawing fantastic patterns where it was impossible to directly, openly call a spade a spade, throwing whimsical fantastic clothes on images and pictures, the satirist thereby gained the opportunity to speak more freely on forbidden topics and at the same time unfold the narrative from an unexpected side and with greater liveliness. The result was a picture bright, poisonous, full of malicious mockery and at the same time, poetic allegories that were formally elusive for censorship. The appeal of the author of the "History of a City" to folklore, to the poetic imagery of folk speech was dictated, in addition to the desire for a national form, and another fundamental consideration. As noted above, in the "History of a City" Shchedrin directly touched the popular masses with the weapon of his satire. However, let's take a look at how this is done. If Shchedrin's contempt for despotic power knows no bounds, if here his seething indignation took on the sharpest and most merciless forms, then with regard to the people he strictly observes the limits of the satire that the people themselves have created against themselves. In order to say bitter words of denunciation about the people, he took these words from the people themselves, from them he received sanction to be their satirist. When the reviewer (A. S. Suvorin) accused the author of "The History of a City" of mocking the people and called the names "nonsense" bunglers, walrus-eaters and others, Shchedrin answered this: “... I affirm that none of these names are invented by me, and in this case I refer to Dahl, Sakharov and other lovers of the Russian people. They will testify that this "nonsense" was composed by the people themselves, but I, for my part, reasoned as follows: if such names exist in the popular imagination, then I, of course, have absolute right take advantage of them and let them into my book" In The History of a City, Shchedrin perfected the most striking features of his satirical manner, in which the usual devices of a realistic style were freely combined with hyperbole, grotesque, fantasy, and allegory. The creative power of Shchedrin in The History of a City was so vividly manifested that his name was first called among the world's satirists. "The History of a City" was the result of Saltykov's ideological and creative development over all previous years of his literary activity and marked the entry of his satire into the time of its highest maturity, opening a long series of new brilliant conquests of his talent in the 70s.
In 1780 Saltykov-Shchedrin's History of a City was published. It is very difficult to determine the genre of this work at first glance. This is most likely a historical chronicle with elements of fantasy, hyperbole, artistic allegory. This is a brilliant example of socio-political satire, the relevance of which over the years has become more and more acute and brilliant.
“He knows his native country better than anyone else,” I. S. Turgenev wrote about Shchedrin, and it is very remarkable that these words were evoked in him precisely by the “History of a City”. The book begins with the fact that the ancient chronicler, "having said a few words in praise of his modesty," continues: "There was ... in ancient times a people called bunglers." These same bunglers devastated their lands, quarreled with their neighbors and "teared the bark from the last pine tree into cakes." Then "they decided to look for a prince." Thus, they no longer became bunglers, but Foolovites, and their city began to be called Foolov. The narrative itself is preceded by a "list of mayors" in the amount of 21 copies. And the collection of biographies of Foolov's mayors begins with Dementy Valamovich Brudasty. A huge mechanism operated in his head, playing two words-shouts: "I will not tolerate" and "one-z-dawn." According to the satirist, Brudust embodies the type of an extremely simplified administrative leader, arising from the very nature of totalitarianism. The chronicle continues with "The Tale of the Six Mayors", evoking in the reader's memory the outrages of favoritism in the era of palace coups in Russia. Amalka Stockfim overthrew Clementine de Bourboni and put her in a cage. Then Nelka Lyakhovskaya overthrew Amalka and locked her in the same cage with Klemantinka. The next morning, there was “nothing but stinking bones in the cage.” This is how the writer played up the meaning of the figurative expression "ready to eat each other." And then there are stories about other mayors, of which one is more disgusting than the other. And this description ends with the image of Grim-Burcheev. This is where the despotic nature of absolutism and its "bridling possibilities" are fully revealed. Gloomy grumbling is a brilliant satirical generalization of all regimes and traditions based on one-man command. But then a downpour, or a tornado, fell on the city of Foolov, and "the former scoundrel instantly disappeared, as if melted in the air." The chronicle ends with the enigmatic words: "History has stopped its course." The entire population of Glupov is united by awe, submission to the curbing "measures" of the authorities. The Foolovites are almost always shown en masse: the Foolovites rush to the mayor's house in droves, throw themselves on their knees in droves, flee the villages in droves, and even die together. Sometimes, however, they grumble, even rebel. But this is a “rebellion on its knees”, with the screams of the hewn, screams and groans of the distraught hungry crowd, as it was in a lean year.
Such is the ending, equally bitter for all Foolovites. Saltykov-Shchedrin liked to repeat that the Russian muzhik is poor in all respects, and above all in the consciousness of his poverty. Bearing in mind this poverty, passivity and humility of the peasant, the satirist bitterly exclaims on behalf of the people: “We endure cold, hunger, every year we all wait: maybe it will be better ... How long?”
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The originality of the genre "History of one city"
Saltykov Shchedrin satirical work
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin is one of the most famous satirists of the 19th century. The writer showed himself in many genres of literature, such as novels, short stories, short stories, and fairy tales.
Almost all the works of Saltykov-Shchedrin have a satirical orientation. The writer was outraged by Russian society, the unfair attitude of the masters towards the slaves, the obedience of the common people to the highest officials. In his works, the author ridiculed the vices and imperfections of Russian society.
It is rather difficult to define the genre: the author wrote it in the form of a chronicle, but the events depicted here seem absolutely unreal, the images are fantastic, and what is happening is like some kind of nightmare. In the novel "The History of a City" Shchedrin reflects the most terrible aspects of the life of Russian society. In his work, the writer does not directly talk about the problematic situation in our country. Despite the name behind the image of the people of the city of Glupov, where the life of the main characters passes, the whole country is hiding, namely Russia.
Thus, Saltykov-Shchedrin opens up new techniques and ways of satirical depiction in literature.
Satire is a form of pathos based on a comic plot. The novel "The History of a City" shows the author's sharp negative attitude towards the current situation in society, expressed in malicious mockery. "History of one city" is a satirical work, where the main artistic means in depicting the history of one city of Glupov, its inhabitants and mayors is the grotesque device of combining the fantastic and the real, creating comic situations. By using the grotesque on one side, Saltykov-Shchedrin shows the reader everyday life each person, and on the other hand, a blind, absurd fantastic situation, the main characters of which are the townsfolk of the city of Foolov. However, the novel "The History of a City" is a realistic work, Saltykov-Shchedrin used the grotesque to show the ugly reality of modern life. In describing the mayors, the author also used the grotesque. For example, giving a description of one of the mayor-Organchik, the author shows qualities that are not characteristic of a person. The organ had a mechanism in his head and knew only two words - "I will not tolerate" and "I will ruin."
When reading the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin "The History of a City", unlike other satirical works, the reader himself must understand what kind of reality is hidden behind the semi-fantastic world that is shown in the novel. The use by the writer in his works of such a technique of a satirical image as "Aesopian language" confirms that behind the secret that the author wants to hide, his true thoughts are hidden. Saltykov-Shchedrin's novel "The History of a City" is built almost entirely on allegory. For example, under the city of Glupovo, an image of the whole of Russia is hidden. Then, consequently, the question arises: "Who are the Foolovites?" - inhabitants of the provincial town of Glupov. No. No matter how hard it is to admit, the Foolovites are Russians.
In the work "History of a City", when describing the mayors, and throughout the entire novel as a whole, the author shows an exaggeration of certain properties. This is called another way to portray satire as hyperbole.
The fact that one of the mayors turned out to have a stuffed head is an exaggeration of the author. The writer uses hyperbole in the novel to give an emotional mood to the reader.
Exposing vices and showing the absurdity of real life. Saltykov-Shchedrin conveys to the reader a special "evil irony" in relation to his heroes. The writer devoted all his creative activity to the fight against the shortcomings and vices of Russia.
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M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826 - 1889)
Literature:
E. Pokusaev. Revolutionary satire of S-Shchedrin.
E. Pokusaev. M.E. Satykov-Shchedrin. (Essay on creativity). M., 1965.
E. Pokusaev. Lord Golovlev.
A.S. Bushmin M. S-Shchedrin.
A.S. Bushmin. The artistic world of Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Bazanov. Tales of St. Shchedrin.
Nikolaev. Life and creativity S-Sch united.
Saltykov-Shchedrin in the memoirs of contemporaries.
S-Shchedrin entered literature not only as a writer, but also as a denouncer of social and human vices, a master of socio-political satire. Sechenov called S-Shchedrin "a diagnostician of our social evils and ailments." The life and work of S-Sch covers almost the entire 19th century. He was born a month after the Decembrist uprising, and died 10 years before the end of the century. S-Shch witnessed all the major events and phenomena in Russian life. He adopted the traditions of Gogol and Turgenev and at the same time opened up the possibilities of satire and grotesque for Russian literature. The life of the writer developed in such a way that from childhood he took out the most difficult memories of the peasants: “ serfdom, heavy and rough in its forms, brought me closer to the forced masses. Only by experiencing it, I could come to a complete, conscious and passionate denial of it. Studied S-Sch at the Tsarsko-Selsky Lyceum. And the lyceum was famous for its democratic tendencies. He graduated from the Noble Institute of St. Petersburg, where student secret circles were organized.
The first work of S-Sch. in 1947-48. the story "A Tangled Case" and "Contradiction". Despite the low artistic merit, these works raised acute social issues, for which their author was exiled to Vyatka, to an administrative exile, where he served as an official. S-Sch later called it "the experience of the great school of life." He perfectly studied the life of officials, the bureaucracy and the state structure. This further determined the theme of his works.
The first major work of S-Sch was the cycle "Provincial Essays". The essays were a cycle of works of various genre forms. They depicted the life of a provincial town, its various classes. Thematically and artistically, the essays are connected with " Dead souls» Gogol. They begin and end with the image of the road, i.e. the conditional narrator arrives in the city, lives there for some time and leaves (ring composition). The writer consciously strives for publicism in order to convince the reader of the authenticity of what is depicted (this is a bad trick that helps to create a closed bad time and space). There is no further road, in the city itself time has stopped. This technique allows, firstly, to create a conditional model of a provincial town; secondly, to identify the most specific traits provincial Russian life; thirdly, to generalize the life of one city to the scale of the whole of Russia.
The first essay ("Introduction") is written in the genre of idyll. The narrator himself calls it "Bukolica". But behind the apparent idyllicness lies a sharp satire. The main artistic technique that S-Sch uses in the cycle and in subsequent works is grotesque - bringing to the point of absurdity, in order to show the illogicality of life situations. In combination with the sublime pathos of the idyll, this creates a comic effect. Moreover, the author's irony is directed both against officials, merchants, and against the gullible inhabitants of the city of Krutogorsk. The author's position can be characterized as a technique of "imaginary solidarity" - the effect of the discrepancy between high and low. Despite the outward resemblance of the "Provincial Essays" with the works of Gogol and "Notes of a Hunter" by Turgenev, the works of S-Sch have specific features. In Gogol, the narrator is an outside observer. In Turgenev, he is a protagonist, but in relation to the heroes, he is a representative of a different social environment (looks down). In S-Sch, the narrator is an ordinary resident of Krutogorsk, “his own” in the described environment. This gives the essays credibility and documentary quality. The cycle consists of several parts: "Past Times" about the high society of the city; "My Acquaintances" about individual representatives of the Krutogorsk world, etc.
A feature of the satirical method of S-Sch is that its characters expose themselves to the reader. In the essays 1st and 2nd story of the clerk, the author gives the floor to the characters themselves, who present bribery, malfeasance, deceit as the ability to live. This technique has led many critics to conclude that S-Sch avoids authorial judgments. However, even in early Christian literature, the idea of hidden ideal , to which the writer leads the reader by the method of contradiction.
S-Shchedrin's laughter, like Gogol's laughter, signifies the death of the old and the birth of the new. It is no coincidence that the “Provincial Essays” end with a funeral scene: old times are being buried. In this cycle, S-Sch uses another original technique: animation literary characters. The first of the heroes - Porfiry Porfiryevich - belongs to the Chichikov family. The section "Talented natures" depicts modern Pechorins, disillusioned, cynical, irritated - provincial Mephistopheles, showing their complete failure.
The cycle ends with the essay "Road". The narrator leaves Krutogorsk. On the way he meets a funeral procession: old times are being buried. The main characters of the essays among the funeral procession. The composition of the essay closes, and the theme of the road comes to the fore. This theme for the literature of the 19th century becomes the main and cross-cutting one. The road is understood symbolically: as a path of search, loss and gain, the life path of a person and the whole country. This is how the road was understood in ancient times. In Chinese poetry, the frenzied chariot ride over the abyss is a metaphor for the path of life. In Russian folklore, every road is a path from birth to death. At the beginning of the 19th century, Pushkin returned to the image of the road its mythological meaning. ( Shchepanskaya's work "The Road in Russian Culture").In his poem "Demons", a traveler lost in the steppe in a snowstorm symbolizes the constant quest of a person and his fate. A person who has gone astray finds himself in the power of demons, i.e. temptations.
The image of the road begins and ends the “provincial essays”, gives them not only a socially critical and satirical meaning, but makes them a philosophical reflection on the fate of Russia, the Russian people and the Russian people.
The next works were the cycle of essays “Lords of Tashkent” and the cycle of stories “Pompadours and Pompadours”.
Ideological and artistic features of the novel "The History of a City"
The first major work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin was the novel "The History of a City" (1869 - 1870). The idea of the novel matured with the writer gradually. Back in the early 1860s, a cycle of essays "Essays on the City of Bryukhov" was conceived. Then the city was renamed into Foolov. And the first essays on the life of the city of Glupov appeared in the press. A story about a governor with a stuffed head was published, which entered the novel almost unchanged. Already in these individual essays and stories, the ideological and thematic orientation and poetics of the novel took shape. The city of Foolov embodied the entire autocratic-bureaucratic Russia. The history of the city is a history of oppression and tyranny. Almost every gradonalnik has features of real historical figures, but the writer himself objected to the search for prototypes of his heroes. His characters are not portraits of specific individuals, but the most typical features of entire social groups, historical eras, human characters.
The narrator presents his work as the notebooks found in the archives of the chronicler of the city of Glupov, who allegedly lived in the 18th century. He assigned himself the role of a publisher. Russian literature has already encountered this technique more than once. This allows you to: 1) move away from events, look at them from the outside; 2) create the appearance of reliability; 3) lull the vigilance of censorship; 4) create and show different t. sp. to the world, different voices. It is no coincidence that the writer chooses the genre of chronicle. This makes it possible to objectify the narrative to the utmost, to make it supposedly documentary. The novel is preceded by a preface from the publisher, which contains a number of supporting thoughts - the leitmotifs of the entire story.
2. "Even from these meager facts, it is possible to catch the physiognomy of the city and track the changes that are simultaneously taking place in the higher spheres." This is how the satirical pathos of the novel is determined, its accusatory orientation, the purpose of this accusation, as well as typification as a feature of generalization.
3. "All of them (mayors) flog the townsfolk, but in different ways." This is how the problematics of the novel, the relationship between power and people, is defined. And at the same time a characteristic of the authorities and the people.
4. The chronicle covers the period from 1731 to 1825. This is how the artistic time of the novel and its correlation with real historical time is determined.
artistic time novel conditionally. Chronological boundaries are symbolic meaning. In 1725, Peter I died. And after several years of fighting for the throne, Anna Ioannovna of Courland (Peter's niece) became queen. The era of timelessness has come, a rollback from Peter's reforms, the strengthening of absolutism and the enslavement of the peasants. Anna Ioannovna destroyed the germs of liberalism. During the reign of Catherine II, the final enslavement of the peasants took place. She freed the nobles from public service, which caused a massive civil war, which lasted almost until the Decembrist uprising in 1825. S-Sch understood the inevitability of the Decembrist uprising, but did not see its results and probably doubted its usefulness, because the novel ends with the phrase "history has stopped its flow."
5. “As for the content of the “chronicler”, it is predominantly fantastic and in some places even incredible. This is how the conventionally fantastic, grotesque character of the depicted is determined.
« The whole work of the publisher, - writes S-Sch, - is that he corrected the spelling of syllables. So the writer has indicated his position, he is removed from the story and brings his novel out of the wrath of censorship. The novel is being republished even in the darkest years of the reaction. Thus, the preface from the publisher is of fundamental importance for the understanding of the novel and creates a setting for perception. Even the following preface from the chronicler, which contains an appeal to the reader from the last archivist. It parodies the main features of chronicle writing: the self-abasement of the chronicler and the exaltation of the object of the image.
If in ancient Russian literature this technique gradually began to be perceived as a convention and a tribute to tradition, then in S-Sh it is filled with comic content. From the point of view of history, the chronicler is a figure of great importance, equal in merit to the object of the image.
The narrative of the "History of a City" is based on the technique of parody: "The Tale of Bygone Years" and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" are parodied, N. Karamzin's work "History of the Russian State" is parodied.
Thanks to Pushkin, the figure of the chronicler became poeticized. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" begins with a scene in a cell in the Miracle Monastery, where Pimen talks with Otrepiev. The monumental image of Pimen gives the events a timeless, philosophical meaning. He is above ordinary human fuss, he is a mediator between people and God. Thus, creating his own chronicler, S-Sch parodies not only the DRL, but also the modern literary tradition. His chronicler is a petty official, uneducated, not seeing beyond his own nose, possessed by an impulse of servility. So Pushkin's tradition merges with Gogol's (with the "little man").
The composition of the main part of the novel reproduces the structure of the chronicle. The novel opens with the chapter "On the Root of the Origin of the Foolovists". This chapter parodies epic chronicle stories. Its plot is built according to the type of legend with the addition of elements of a folk fairy tale. In addition to the folklore element, this chapter also parodies Karamzin's work "The History of the Russian State", in particular the story of how, on the advice of the elder Gostomysl, the Novgorodians call the Varangians to their princes. In S-Sh, this role is played by the elder Dobromysl, who advises the bunglers (ancestors of the Foolovites) to look for a ruler.
The satirical intonation is set by the "inventory of mayors." It has a comic effect. The very concept of "inventory" implies a listing of inanimate objects stored in a museum or archive. S-Sch uses the technique of metaphorical reification, the necrosis of heroes. On the other hand, this inventory allows us to show that all the mayors had something in common: inhumanity, heartlessness, bungling.
Further, each chapter tells about some ruler and about the era of his reign. In this case, the writer uses the technique gradations: the build-up of grotesque and satirical elements from the first mayor to the last, from the "organ" chapter to the "Conclusion" chapter. The busty organ and Gloomy-Grumbling became the embodiment of ferocity, lawlessness and soullessness of power. But, if in the image of Brodystoy there are more comical features, then in the image of Grim-Grumbling there are more grotesquely terrifying ones. The desert is the ideal human hostel for him. He dreams of turning the whole world into a barracks. Between these two images are the voluptuary Ferdyshchenko, the "enlightener" Vasilisk Borodavkin, the liberal Pryshch and others. It is with Pimple that Prosperity occurs in the city, but not due to his activity, but because he is simply not capable of any activity, i.e. does not interfere with the natural, natural course of city life. Pimple had a stuffed head and was eaten. This technique is called: “realistic metaphor”: they literally ate it, it was done by the marshal of the nobility.
In the images of the mayors, the features of the satirical manner of S-Shch were manifested to the greatest extent. The writer uses the following techniques:
1. Reification, necrosis, the transformation of a person into a doll, into a mannequin.
2. Endowment with speaking surnames, as well as surnames-nicknames (Gloomy-Grumbling, Pimple, etc.)
3. The use of Aesopian language and stylization under someone else's literary style (chronicler).
4. In connection with the previous methods, the grotesque comes to the fore.
Grotesque is the ultimate exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. The grotesque breaks the boundaries of plausibility, gives the image a convention. The grotesque takes the image beyond the limits of the probable, thereby deforming it. Grotesque is different from hyperbole. Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration along one line. The grotesque involves the combination in one image of phenomena and objects belonging to different life series (a person with a mechanical or stuffed head); combination of incongruous; incompatible connection. Here the grotesque is closer to an oxymoron.
5. The artistic result of the grotesque is laughter: “nothing discourages vice so much as the consciousness that it has been guessed and laughter has already been heard about it” (S-Sch)
The system of characters in the novel includes not only mayors. The hero is also the people or people (as the narrator calls him) inhabiting the city of Foolov. He is characterized by such traits as passivity, humility, political naivety and love of the boss. Humanism S-Sh manifests itself in sympathy and compassion for the absurd, stupid and downtrodden people. This is shown in the chapters "Hungry City" and "Straw City". But the position of the writer diverges from the position of populist literature. He does not idealize the people. Satire S-Sh directed simultaneously against the authorities and against the political passivity and immorality of the Foolovites.
However, the nature of the satirical image in these cases is different. The inhabitants of the city have real heads and there is not a single frightening figure among them. The image of the people is heterogeneous. This is not a faceless mass. A protest is brewing in the depths of the people. In the chapter "The Hungry City" images of people's protectors-walkers appear, but their fate is tragic. Old Evseich disappeared, "like all the prospectors of the Russian land"; another walker, Pakhomych, began to write papers to the capital, but achieved only that soldiers were sent to pacify the rebellion.
There is one thought in the novel that does not explicitly express, but testifies to the true views of the writer: the road from Glupovo to Umnov lies through Buyanov. Those. only organized resistance to the arbitrariness of power, enlightenment among the people will deliver from slavery.
The purpose of the writer is to awaken the civic consciousness of the people. At the end of the novel, the most terrible mayor, Grim-Grumbling, no longer frightens anyone. Everyone saw that he was an idiot and nothing more.
The novel ends with a universal catastrophe: a tornado flies, and the mayor disappears. This disaster is named in the novel "it", i.e. it is not only a natural, but also a social phenomenon.
Many contemporaries saw it as a revolution. However, S-Sch did not go that far. A number of critics accused the writer of mocking the people (Pisare), but Turgenev was the first to notice such a phenomenon in the poetics of Saltykov-Shchedrin as a hidden ideal.
Until now, there are disputes about the genre nature of the novel. Obviously, this is a satirical novel-chronicle. But it is both a parody novel and a fantasy novel. Moreover, the novel contains a warning: this gives reason to interpret its genre as a dystopia.
Art S-Sh method are defined unusually: realistic fiction, i.e. his fiction does not lead away from reality, but serves as a means of depicting and exposing it. Fiction in works of S-Sch- always a continuation of reality, it is rational and amenable to explanation.
