Humanity is one of the most important and at the same time complex concepts. It is impossible to give it an unambiguous definition, because it manifests itself in a variety of human qualities. This is the desire for justice, and honesty, and respect. Someone who can be called human is able to take care of others, help and take care of others. He can see the good in people, emphasize their main advantages. All this can be confidently attributed to the main manifestations of this quality.
What is humanity?
There are many examples of humanity from life. These are both heroic actions of people in wartime, and very insignificant, seemingly, actions in ordinary life. Humanity and kindness are expressions of compassion for others. Motherhood is also synonymous with this quality. After all, every mother actually sacrifices to her baby the most precious thing she has - her own life. The opposite of humanity is the brutal cruelty of the fascists. A person only has the right to be called a person if he is able to do good.
Dog rescue
An example of humanity in life is the act of a person who saved a dog in the subway. Once a stray dog \u200b\u200bappeared in the lobby of the Kurskaya station of the Moscow metro. She ran along the platform. Maybe she was looking for someone, or maybe she was just chasing the departing train. But it so happened that the animal fell onto the tracks.
There were many passengers at the station then. People were frightened - after all, less than a minute remained before the next train arrived. The situation was saved by a brave police officer. He jumped onto the tracks, grabbed the unlucky dog \u200b\u200bunder his paws and carried him to the station. This story is a good example of humanity from life.
New York teenager act
This quality is not complete without compassion and goodwill. There is a lot of evil in real life nowadays, and people should show compassion to each other. An illustrative example from life on the topic of humanity is the act of a 13-year-old New Yorker named Nach Elpstein. For a bar mitzvah (or coming of age in Judaism), he received 300 thousand shekels as a gift. The boy decided to donate all this money to Israeli children. Not every day you can hear about such an act, which is a true example of humanity from life. The sum went to the construction of a new generation bus for the work of young scientists on the periphery of Israel. This vehicle is a mobile classroom that will help young learners become true scientists in the future.
An example of humanity in life: donation
There is no more noble deed than giving your blood to another. This is a real charity, and everyone who takes this step can be called a real citizen and a person with a capital letter. Donors are strong-minded people with a kind heart. An example of the manifestation of humanity in life is the resident of Australia, James Harrison. He donates blood plasma almost every week. For a very long time he was awarded a kind of nickname - "The Man with the Golden Hand". After all, blood was taken from Harrison's right hand more than a thousand times. And for all the years that he has been donating, Harrison has managed to save more than 2 million people.
In his youth, the hero donor underwent a complex operation, as a result of which he had to remove a lung. He managed to save his life only thanks to donors who donated 6.5 liters of blood. Harrison never knew the saviors, but decided that he would donate blood for the rest of his life. After talking with doctors, James learned that his blood type was unusual and could be used to save the lives of newborn babies. Very rare antibodies were present in his blood, which are able to solve the problem of incompatibility of the Rh factor in the blood of the mother and the embryo. Because Harrison donated blood every week, doctors were able to constantly make new doses of vaccine for such cases.
An example of humanity from life, from literature: Professor Preobrazhensky
One of the most striking literary examples of possessing this quality is Professor Preobrazhensky from Bulgakov's work “ dog's heart". He dared to challenge the forces of nature and turn a street dog into a man. His attempts were defeated. However, Preobrazhensky feels responsible for his actions, and does his best to turn Sharikov into a worthy member of society. This reveals the highest qualities of the professor, his humanity.
What place do moral qualities occupy in the life of each of us? What do they mean to us? It is about the importance of humanity and mercy that V.P. Astafiev.
One of the problems touched upon by the author is the problem of the need to develop humanism, mercy and humanity in every person and the importance of the influence of these qualities on the moral analysis of our own actions, carried out by each of us, as well as the manifestation of humanism in our life.
The young man who shot his first prey on the hunt does not feel joy, because he killed a living creature, although there was no need for that, as the words say "and he seemed to have no use for a bird." The lyrical hero, reflecting, comes to the conclusion that this young man already has feelings of humanity and mercy, which the lyric hero himself did not have at such a young age, as evidenced by his remark “pain and remorse came to me already gray and echoed in a young guy, almost still a boy. "
In world literature, there are many examples of the manifestation of humanism and humanity. For example, in the story of A.P. Platonov's "Yushka" the main character deprived himself of a lot in order to raise money for his adopted daughter, for which he can be called a kind and humane person. The people who took off their anger on him and offended him were angry and cruel, and repentance came to them only after Yushka's death, that is, too late, like the hero of the text V.P. Astafiev, to whom this pain of repentance came "to the gray hair."
Speaking about humanity and humanity of people, one cannot but recall the heroine of the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita", who disinterestedly asks Woland to have mercy on the unfortunate Frida, and does not ask about the fate of the Master, although she sacrificed herself only for this.
Thus, the development of moral qualities helps a person to form as a person, in which there is no place for cruelty and unjustified anger.
Reading the text of the Russian Soviet writer V.P. Astafiev, I remembered the statement of the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos, who once said: “As long as people continue to kill animals en masse, they will kill each other. He who sows the seeds of murder and pain will not reap joy and love. " It is about the meaning of the killing of living beings and their influence on the human psyche, as well as the need for moral education of humanity in each of us, that the author of the read text discusses.
Effective preparation for the exam (all subjects) -
Humanism - (from Lat.humanitas - humanity, humanus - humane) - 1) a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of \u200b\u200ba person, concern for his rights to, freedom, equality, personal development (and so on); 2) an ethical position, which implies care for a person and his welfare as the highest value; 3) the system of social structure, within which the life and good of a person is recognized as the highest value (example: the Renaissance is often called the era of Humanism); 4) philanthropy, humanity, respect for a person, etc.
Humanism took shape in Western Europe in the Renaissance, in contrast to the preceding Catholic ideology of asceticism, which affirmed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe insignificance of human needs before the requirements of the Divine nature, fostered contempt for "mortal goods" and "carnal pleasures."
The parents of humanism, being Christians, did not put man at the head of the universe, but only reminded of his interests as a godlike person, denounced contemporary society for sins against humanity (love for man). In their treatises, they argued that the Christian teaching in their modern society did not extend to the fullness of human nature, that disrespect, lies, theft, envy and hatred towards a person are: neglect of his education, health, creativity, the right to choose a spouse, profession , lifestyle, country of residence, and more.
Humanism did not become an ethical, philosophical or theological system (see about this in the article Humanism, or Renaissance Philosophical Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron), but, despite its theological doubtfulness and philosophical vagueness, at present the most conservative Christians also use its fruits. And, on the contrary, few of the most "right-wing" Christians are not horrified by the attitude towards the human person, which is accepted in communities where reverence for the One is combined with a lack of humanism.
However, over time, a substitution took place in the humanistic worldview: God was no longer perceived as the center of the universe, and man became the center of the universe. Thus, in accordance with what humanism considers its system-forming center, we can talk about two types of humanism. Primordial - theistic humanism (John Reuchlin, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Ulrich von Guten, etc.), which affirms the possibility and necessity of God's providence for the world and man. “In this case, God is not only transcendental to the world, but also immanent to it,” so God for man is in this case the center of the universe.
In the widespread deistic humanistic worldview (Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire), God is completely “transcendental to man, that is, absolutely incomprehensible and inaccessible to him ", therefore man becomes the center of the universe for himself, and God is only" taken into account. "
Today, the vast majority of humanitarian workers believe that humanism autonomous, because his ideas cannot be derived from religious, historical or ideological premises, entirely depends on the accumulated human experience in the implementation of intercultural norms of living together: cooperation, benevolence, honesty, loyalty and tolerance towards others, adherence to the law, etc. Therefore, humanism universal,that is, it is applicable to all people and any social systems, which is reflected in the right of all people to life, love, education, moral and intellectual freedom, etc. In fact, this opinion affirms the identity of the modern concept of "humanism" with the concept of "natural moral law", used in Christian theology (see hereinafter “Pedagogical proof ...”). The Christian concept of "natural moral law" differs from the generally accepted concept of "humanism" only in its supposed nature, that is, in the fact that humanism is considered a socially conditioned phenomenon, generated by social experience, and the natural moral law is considered to be a desire for order and everything that was originally embedded in the soul of every person. good. Since, from the Christian point of view, the insufficiency of the natural moral law for achieving the Christian norm of human morality is obvious, the insufficiency of "humanism" as the basis of the humanitarian sphere, that is, the sphere of human relations and human existence, is also obvious.
The following fact confirms the abstract nature of the concept of humanism. Since natural morality and the concept of love for a person are inherent, in one manifestation or another, to any human community, then the concept of humanism is adopted by almost all existing ideological doctrines, due to which there are, for example, concepts such as socialist, communist, nationalist , Islamic, atheistic, integral, etc. humanisms.
In essence, humanism can be called that part of any teaching that teaches to love a person in accordance with the understanding of this ideology of love for a person and the methods of achieving it.
Notes:
1. The concept of humanism.
2. Pushkin as a herald of humanity.
3. Examples of humanistic works.
4. The works of a writer are taught to be human.
... Reading his creations, you can perfectly educate a person in yourself ...
V. G. Belinsky
In the dictionary of literary terms, you can find the following definition of the term "humanism": "humanism, humanity - love for a person, humanity, compassion for a person in trouble, in oppression, the desire to help him."
Humanism arose as a definite current of progressive social thought, which raised the struggle for the rights of the human person, against church ideology, oppression of scholasticism, during the Renaissance in the struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism and became one of the main features of advanced bourgeois literature and art.
The work of such Russian writers, reflecting the liberation struggle of the people, as A. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov is permeated with humanism.
A.S. Pushkin is a humanist writer, but what does this mean in practice? This means that for Pushkin the principle of humanity is of great importance, that is, in his works the writer preaches truly Christian virtues: mercy, understanding, compassion. In each protagonist, you can find features of humanism, be it Onegin, Grinev or an unnamed Caucasian prisoner. However, for each hero, the concept of humanism changes. The content of this term also changes depending on the periods of the great Russian writer.
At the very beginning of the writer's career, the word "humanism" was often understood as the inner freedom of choice of a person. It is no coincidence that at a time when the poet himself was in southern exile, his work was enriched by a new type of hero, romantic, strong, but not free. Two Caucasian poems - "Prisoner of the Caucasus" and "Gypsies" - a vivid confirmation of this. The nameless hero, captured and held in captivity, however, turns out to be freer than Aleko, choosing a life with a nomadic people. The idea of \u200b\u200bindividual freedom occupies the author's thoughts during this period and receives an original, non-standard interpretation. So the defining trait of Aleko's character - egoism - becomes a force that completely steals the inner freedom of a person, while the hero of the "Prisoner of the Caucasus", albeit limited in movement, is internally free. This is what helps him make a fateful, but conscious choice. Aleko wants will only for himself. Therefore, the love story of him and the gypsy Zemfira, completely free spiritually, turns out to be sad - the main character kills his beloved, who has stopped loving him. The poem "Gypsies" shows the tragedy of modern individualism, and in the main character - the character of an outstanding personality, which was first outlined in "Prisoner of the Caucasus" and finally recreated in "Eugene Onegin".
The next period of creativity gives a new interpretation of humanism and new heroes. Boris Godunov and Eugene Onegin, written in the period from 1823 to 1831, give us new food for thought: what is humanity for a poet? This period of creativity is represented by more complex, but at the same time integral characters of the main characters. Both Boris and Eugene - each of them faces certain moral and ethical choices, the acceptance or rejection of which depends entirely on their character. Both personalities are tragic, each of them deserves pity and understanding.
The pinnacle of humanism in Pushkin's works was the closing period of his work and such works as Belkin's Tales, Little Tragedies, and The Captain's Daughter. Humanism and humanity are now becoming truly complex concepts and include many different characteristics. This is the freedom of will and personality of the hero, honor and conscience, the ability to sympathy and empathy, and, mainly, the ability to love. Not only a person, but also the world around him, nature and art must be loved by a hero in order to become really interesting for Pushkin the humanist. These works are also characterized by the punishment of inhumanity, in which the author's position is clearly traced. If earlier the hero's tragedy depended on external circumstances, now it is determined by the inner capacity for humanity. Everyone who deliberately leaves the bright path of philanthropy is doomed to severe punishment. The antihero carries one of the types of passions. The Baron from "The Covetous Knight" is not just a niggard, he is a bearer of a passion for wealth and power. Salieri longs for fame, he is also oppressed by envy of his friend who is happier in talent. Don Juan, the hero of The Stone Guest, is the bearer of sensual passions, and the inhabitants of a city destroyed by the plague find themselves in the grip of the passion of rapture. Each of them gets what he deserves, each) is punished.
In this regard, the most significant works for the disclosure of the concept of humanism are "Belkin's Tales" and "The Captain's Daughter". "Belkin's Tales" is a special phenomenon in the writer's work, consisting of five prose works united by a single idea: "The Stationmaster", "Shot", "The Young Lady-Peasant", "Snowstorm", "Undertaker". Each of the stories is devoted to the hardships and sufferings that befell one of the main classes - the small landowner, peasant, official or artisan. Each of the stories teaches us compassion, understanding and acceptance of universal human values. Indeed, despite the difference in the perception of happiness by each class, we understand and nightmare the undertaker, and the experiences of the daughter of a small landowner in love, and the recklessness of the army officials.
The crown of Pushkin's humanistic works is "The Captain's Daughter". Here we see the already matured, formed thought of the author concerning universal human passions and problems. Through compassion for the protagonist, the reader, along with him, goes through the path of becoming a strong, strong-willed personality, who knows firsthand what honor is. Time after time, the reader, together with the main character, makes a moral choice on which life, honor and freedom depend. Thanks to this, the reader grows with the hero and learns to be human.
VG Belinsky said about Pushkin: "... Reading his creations, you can in an excellent way educate a person in yourself ...". Indeed, Pushkin's works are so full of humanism, philanthropy and attention to enduring universal human values: mercy, compassion and love, that using them, like a textbook, you can learn to make important decisions, preserve honor, love and hate - learn to be human.
Dictionary of Medical Terms
humanism (lat.humanus human, humane)
a system of beliefs that recognizes the value of a person as a person, characterized by the protection of his dignity and freedom of development, considering the good of a person as the main criterion for assessing social institutions, and the principles of equality and justice
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
humanism
humanism, pl. no, m. (from Latin humanus - human) (book).
The ideological movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of the human person and thought from the shackles of feudalism and Catholicism (history).
Enlightened philanthropy (outdated).
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.
humanism
Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people.
The progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at freeing man from the ideological enslavement of the times of feudalism.
adj. humanistic, th, th.
New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
humanism
A historically changing system of views that recognizes the value of a person as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations.
the ideological and cultural movement of the Renaissance, opposing scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church with the principle of free all-round development of the human personality.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
humanism
HUMANISM (from Lat. Humanus - human, humane) recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations. In a narrower sense, the secular free-thinking of the Renaissance, opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, is associated with the study of the newly discovered works of classical antiquity.
Big Law Dictionary
humanism
(humanism principle) - one of the principles of law in a democratic state. In a broad sense, it means a historically changing system of views on society and a person, imbued with respect for the individual. G.'s principle is enshrined in Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation: "Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value", as well as in Art. 7 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, art. 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR and other legislative acts. In criminal law, it means that punishment and other measures of a criminal-legal nature applied to a person who committed a crime cannot cause physical suffering or humiliate human dignity.
Humanism
(from lat.humanus - human, humane), a historically changing system of views, recognizing the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social institutions, and the principles of equality, justice, humanity the desired norm of relations between people.
G.'s ideas have a long history. Motives of humanity, philanthropy, dreams of happiness and justice can be found in the works of oral folk art, in literature, moral, philosophical and religious concepts of various peoples since ancient times. But G.'s system of views was first formed during the Renaissance. G. acted at this time as a broad current of social thought, embracing philosophy, philology, literature, art and imprinted in the consciousness of the era. Georgia was formed in the struggle against feudal ideology, religious dogma, and the spiritual dictatorship of the church. Humanists, having revived many literary monuments of classical antiquity, used them for the development of secular culture and education. They contrasted secular knowledge to theological-scholastic knowledge, to religious asceticism - the enjoyment of life, the humiliation of man - the ideal of a free, comprehensively developed personality. In the 14th and 15th centuries. Italy was the center of humanistic thought (F. Petrarca, G. Boccaccio, Lorenzo Balla, Picodella Mirandola, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and others), then G. spread to other European countries simultaneously with the Reformation movement. Many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of G. - M. Montaigne, F. Rabelais (France), W. Shakespeare, F. Bacon (England), L. Vives, M. Cervantes (Spain), W. Gutten, A. Durer (Germany), Erasmus of Rotterdam, and others. The Renaissance G. was one of the main expressions of that revolution in culture and worldview, which reflected the emerging formation of capitalist relations. The further development of G.'s ideas is associated with social thought during the period of bourgeois revolutions (17th and early 19th centuries). The ideologists of the nascent bourgeoisie developed the ideas of the "natural rights" of man, put forward as a criterion for the suitability of a social structure its correspondence to the abstract "nature of man", educators of the 18th century - P. Holbach, A. K. Helvetius, D. Diderot, and others - clearly linked Germany with materialism and atheism. A number of G.'s principles were developed in German classical philosophy. I. Kant put forward the idea of \u200b\u200beternal peace, formulated a proposition that expresses the essence of G., that a person can be for another person only a goal, but not a means. True, the implementation of these principles was ascribed by Kant to an indefinite future.
The system of humanistic views, created in the conditions of rising capitalism, was a great achievement of social thought. At the same time, it was internally contradictory and historically limited, for it was based on an individualistic concept of personality, on an abstract understanding of man. This contradictoriness of abstract capitalism was clearly revealed with the assertion of capitalism, a system where, in direct opposition to the ideals of capitalism, a person is transformed into a means of capital production, subject to the domination of spontaneous social forces and laws alien to him, the capitalist division of labor, which disfigures the individual and makes it one-sided. The domination of private property and the division of labor gives rise to various types of human alienation. This proves that on the basis of private property the principles of G. cannot become the norms of relations between people. Criticizing private property, T. More, T. Campanella, Morelli and G. Mablely believed that only by replacing it with a community of property, humanity could achieve happiness and prosperity. These ideas were developed by the great utopian socialists A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, and R. Owen, who saw the contradictions of the already established capitalist system and, inspired by the ideals of Germany, developed projects for reforming society on the basis of socialism. However, they could not find real ways of creating a socialist society, and in their ideas about the future, along with ingenious guesses, there was a lot of fantastic things. The humanistic tradition in the social thought of Russia in the 19th century. were represented by revolutionary democrats - A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, A.N. Dobrolyubov, T.G. Shevchenko and others. G.'s ideas inspired the classics of the great Russian literature of the 19th century.
A new stage in the development of geography began with the emergence of Marxism, which rejected the abstract, ahistorical interpretation of "human nature" only as a biological "generic essence" and approved its scientific concrete historical understanding, showing that "... the essence of man ... is the totality of all social relations "(K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 3). Marxism rejected the abstract, supra-class approach to the problems of geography and placed them on a real historical basis, formulated a new concept of geography - proletarian, or socialist, geography, which has absorbed the best achievements of humanistic thought of the past. K. Marx was the first to define the real ways of realizing the ideals of Germany, linking it with the scientific theory of social development, with the revolutionary movement of the proletariat, and with the struggle for communism. Communism eliminates private property and exploitation of man by man, national oppression and racial discrimination, social antagonisms and wars, eliminates all forms of alienation, puts the achievements of science and culture at the service of man, creates material, social and spiritual prerequisites for the harmonious and all-round development of a free human personality. Under communism, labor is transformed from a means of livelihood into a first vital need, and the development of the individual becomes the highest goal of society. Therefore, Marx called communism real, practical G. (see K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, 1956, p. 637). The opponents of communism deny the humanist character of Marxism on the grounds that it is based on materialism and includes the theory of class struggle. This criticism is untenable, because materialism, recognizing the value of earthly life, orients towards its transformation in the interests of man, and the Marxist theory of the class struggle as an irreplaceable means of solving social problems during the transition to socialism is by no means an apology for violence. It justifies the forced use of revolutionary violence to suppress the resistance of the minority in the interests of the majority, in those conditions when it becomes impossible to solve urgent social problems without it. The Marxist worldview is revolutionary-critical and humanistic at the same time. The ideas of Marxist G. were further concretized in the works of V.I.Lenin, who studied a new era in the development of capitalism, the revolutionary processes of this era, and also the beginning of the era of transition from capitalism to socialism, when these ideas began to be practically implemented.
Socialist G. is opposed to abstract G., which preaches "humanity in general," independent of the struggle for the actual liberation of man from all types of exploitation. But within the framework of the ideas of abstract G., two main tendencies can be distinguished. On the one hand, the ideas of abstract G. are used to mask the antihumanist character of modern capitalism, to criticize socialism, to fight the communist worldview, to falsify socialist G. On the other hand, in bourgeois society there are strata and groups that take the positions of abstract G. but are critical of capitalism, advocate peace and democracy, and are concerned about the future of humanity. The two world wars unleashed by imperialism, the misanthropic theory and practice of fascism, which openly trampled the principles of Germany, the continuing rampant racism, militarism, the arms race, and the nuclear threat hanging over the world pose very acute problems to humankind. People who act from the standpoint of abstract Germany against imperialism. and the social evil it generates, are to a certain extent allies of revolutionary socialist Germany in the struggle for real human happiness.
The principles of Marxist, socialist geography are perverted by the right and "left" revisionists. Both of them essentially identify socialist G. with abstract G. But while the former see in abstract humanistic principles the essence of Marxism in general, the latter reject any G. as a bourgeois concept. In fact, life proves the correctness of the principles of socialist Germany. With the victory of socialism, first in the USSR and then in other countries of the socialist community, the ideas of Marxist Germany received real practical reinforcement in the humanistic achievements of the new social system, which chose the humanistic principle as the motto of its further development: “Everything in the name of man, for the good of man. "
Lit .: K. Marx, Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, M., 1956; K. Marx, Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law. Introduction, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch. , 2nd ed. , t. 1; K. Marx and F. Engels, Communist Manifesto, ibid., Vol. 4: F. Engels, Development of socialism from utopia to science, ibid., Vol. 19: V. I. Lenin, State and revolution, ch. 5, Poly. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 33; him, Tasks of youth unions, ibid., v. 41; Program of the CPSU (Adopted by the XXII Congress of the CPSU), Moscow, 1969; Overcoming the personality cult and its consequences. Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Moscow, 1956; Gramshi A., Prison notebooks, Izbr. Prod., vol. 3, trans. from ital., M., 1959; Volgin V.P., Humanism and Socialism, M., 1955; Fedoseev P. N., Socialism and humanism, M., 1958; Petrosyan M.I., Humanism, M., 1964; P.K. Kurochkin, Orthodoxy and humanism, M., 1962; The construction of communism and the spiritual world of man, M., 1966; Konrad N.I., West and East, M., 1966; From Erasmus of Rotterdam to Bertrand Russell. Sat. Art., M., 1969: Ilyenkov E. V., On idols and ideals, M., 1968: Kurella A., Svoe and stranger, M., 1970; Simonyan E.A., Communism is real humanism, M., 1970.
W. J. Kelle. Humanism.
Utopias have fallen under the pressure of world waves humanism, pacifism, international socialism, international anarchism, etc.
In any case, it was precisely from the second half of the 80s in the English-speaking world that a sharp criticism of traditional American feminism as a manifestation of bourgeois liberalism and humanism by post-structuralist feminist theorists like Toril Moy, Chris Whedon, Rita Felski, etc.
They embarked on a vicious path leading from humanism to animalism, - a path opposite to what Mankind has done, stimulated by the greatest creative acts of the living history of the Universe.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe inner unity of ethics and culture, the requirement to make humanism and the moral development of the personality by the criteria of cultural progress, the defense of the principle of equality of all people on earth without distinction of the color of their skin, adamant anti-militarism and anti-fascism in beliefs and practical activities - all these are features of his appearance that give you reason to characterize Schweitzer as an outstanding moral phenomenon in the life of a bourgeois society in an era of deep crisis of its culture.
In the fear of popular movements, in the lack of understanding of their progressive antifeudal orientation, the historical limitations were reflected humanism as a fundamentally bourgeois educational movement.
Lieutenant Baranovsky with his search for justice, the unresolved illusions of the abstract bourgeois humanism fell victim to his own contradictions, found himself under the wheels of an inexorable history.
About the facts of the soullessness of the Caterpillar, I wrote a report three times and was beaten three times for my humanism.
If humanism - so with forgiveness, if justice - then instantly, immediately and to everyone.
And there was a vague humanism and the dreamy vanity of Tsar Alexander, the shocked Habsburgs from Austria, the angry Hohenzollerns from Prussia, the aristocratic traditions of Britain, still trembling with fear of revolution, whose conscience was the slave labor of children in factories and the right to vote stolen from ordinary people.
In full accordance with the ideas of the romantic humanism Hawthorne saw in the individual consciousness a source of social evil and, at the same time, a tool for overcoming it.
This is what your policy has led, '' shouted Dessalin, `` this is the result of your humanism.
Declaring and affirming principles humanism, high morality and morality, singing and poeticizing nature, Fiedler said with good reason that he was trying to be faithful in his work to the traditions of Henryk Sienkiewicz and Stefan eromski - Polish classics close to him in spirit.
Despite the fact that more recently humanism was catastrophically devalued by National Socialism, Heidegger now set out to sharply raise its current price.
Hating wars and politics, Deira did not force Kai to change her beliefs and, together with her, devote herself to serving the ideals humanism.
Humanism is a democratic, ethical life position that asserts that human beings have the right and responsibility to determine the meaning and form of their lives. Humanism calls for the building of a more humane society through ethics based on human and other natural values, in the spirit of reason and free search, through the use of human abilities. Humanism is not theistic and does not accept a "supernatural" vision of the real world. (eng.)
Humanism is a progressive life position that, without the help of supernatural belief, affirms our ability and duty to lead an ethical life in order to self-realization and in the desire to bring greater good to humanity. (eng.)
Humanist ideas in human history
Thinkers whose ideas influenced Renaissance humanism:
- Eneo Silvio Piccolomini (Pope Pius II);
- cardinal Pietro Bembo;
- Vives (Spain);
- Robert Esthen (France);
- Carl Beauville;
- Thomas More (England);
- John Cole;
- thinkers of the Cambridge School.
Thinkers of neo-humanism (late 18th - early 19th centuries):
Connection with monotheism
Marxist (socialist) humanism
Humanism today
Yuri Cherny in his work "Modern Humanism" offers the following periodization of the development of the modern humanist movement:
Modern humanism is a diverse ideological movement, the process of organizational formation of which began in the period between the two world wars and continues intensively today. The concept of "humanism" as a definition of their own views on life is used by agnostics, free-thinkers, rationalists, atheists, members of ethical societies (striving to separate moral ideals from religious doctrines, metaphysical systems and ethical theories in order to give them independent power in personal life and social relations ).
Organizations of supporters of humanistic movements existing in many countries of the world are united in the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHES). Their activities are based on program documents - declarations, charters and manifestos, the most famous of which are:
- Humanist Manifesto I ();
- Humanist Manifesto II ();
- Declaration of Secular Humanism ();
- Humanist Manifesto 2000 ();
Other international and regional humanist organizations (World Union of Freethinkers, International Academy of Humanism, American Humanist Association, British Humanist Association, Dutch Humanist League, Russian Humanist Society, Association, Sanity (public fund), International Coalition "For Humanism!", etc.).
Theorists of the modern humanist movement and supporters of the ideas of humanism:
- Jaap P. van Praag ( Jaap P. van Praag, 1911-1981), professor of philosophy in Utrecht (Holland), later the first chairman of the MHES;
- Harold John Blackham ( Harold J. Blackham, genus. in 1903), Great Britain;
- Paul Kurtz ( Paul kurtz, 1925-2012), USA;
- Corliss Lamont ( Corliss lamont, 1902-1995), USA;
- Sydney Hook (1902-1989), USA;
- Ernest Nagel (1901-1985), USA;
- Alfred Iyer (1910-1989), President of the British Humanist Association 1965-1970
- George Santayana (1863-1952), USA.
Criticism
According to the religious existentialist Nikolai Berdyaev (1874-1948), atheistic humanism is dialectically reborn into anti-humanism, into bestialism. Ideally, it ultimately leads to Nietzscheanism and Marxism, socially - to the inhuman regimes of Nazi Germany and communist Russia, in which a person is sacrificed to the nation and class, to the ideas of power and the common good. This is due to the will of man to the absolute, which is either carried out in the act of union with God, or leads him to idolization and self-destruction. But "after Nietzsche, after his deed and fate, his humanism is no longer possible, forever overcome." To absorb the experience of humanism and replace it should be a renewed, enlightened and purified from anthropomorphism, sociomorphism and naturalism in the concept of God, religious consciousness:
There is a true and false criticism of humanism (humanism). His main lie is in the idea of \u200b\u200bman's self-sufficiency, the self-deification of man, that is, in the denial of God-manhood. The rise of a person, his achievement of heights, presupposes the existence of something higher than a person. And when a person remains with himself, becomes isolated in the human, then he creates idols for himself, without which he cannot rise. This is the basis of a true criticism of humanism. False criticism, however, denies the positive significance of humanistic experience and leads to a denial of human humanity. This can lead to bestialization when an inhuman god is worshiped. But the inhuman god is no better or even worse than the godless man. In the history of Christianity, an inhuman god was very often affirmed, and this led to the appearance of an atheist man. But one must always remember that the denial of God and God-manhood in the superficial consciousness does not mean the absence of real God-manhood in man. The highest humanity is embedded in Christianity, since it is based on God-manhood and on Christian personalism, on the recognition of the highest value of every human person. But in the history of the Christian world, three stages could be established: inhumanity in Christianity, humanity outside of Christianity, new Christian humanity.
Humanism was also criticized by the Orthodox Archbishops Andrei (Rymarenko) and Averky (Taushev), who belonged to the ROCOR, who lived in the United States.
see also
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The main source of the artistic power of Russian classical literature is its close connection with the people; in serving the people, Russian literature saw the main meaning of its existence. “Burn the hearts of people with a verb” called on poets A.S. Pushkin. M.Yu. Lermontov wrote that the mighty words of poetry should sound
... like a bell on a veche tower
During the days of celebrations and troubles of the people.
N.A. gave his lyre to the struggle for the happiness of the people, for their liberation from slavery and poverty. Nekrasov. The work of genius writers - Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin, Turgenev and Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov - with all the differences in the artistic form and ideological content of their works, is united by a deep connection with the life of the people, a truthful depiction of reality, a sincere desire to serve the happiness of the motherland. Great Russian writers did not recognize "art for art", they were the heralds of socially active art, art for the people. Revealing the moral greatness and spiritual wealth of the working people, they awakened the reader's sympathy for ordinary people, faith in the strength of the people, their future.
Beginning in the 18th century, Russian literature waged a passionate struggle to free the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.
This is Radishchev, who portrayed the autocratic system of the era as "a monster bastard, mischievous, huge, hundred-zeal and bark."
This is Fonvizin, who exposed rude serf-owners like the Prostakovs and Skotinins to shame.
This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in "his cruel age he glorified freedom."
This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his untimely death there.
There is no need to list all the names of Russian writers in order to prove the fidelity of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.
Along with the acuteness of the social problems that characterize Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its posing of moral problems.
Russian literature has always tried to awaken "good feelings" in the reader, protested against any injustice. Pushkin and Gogol for the first time raised their voices in defense of the "little man", a modest worker; after them were taken under the protection of the "humiliated and insulted" Grigorovich, Turgenev, Dostoevsky. Nekrasov. Tolstoy, Korolenko.
At the same time, the consciousness grew in Russian literature that the "little man" should not be a passive object of pity, but a conscious fighter for human dignity. This idea was especially clearly manifested in the satirical works of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov, who condemned any manifestation of obedience and obsequiousness.
A large place in Russian classical literature is given to moral issues... With all the diversity in the interpretation of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to see that for all goodies Russian literature is characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, an indefatigable search for truth, aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life, and a readiness for self-sacrifice. In these features, the heroes of Russian literature differ significantly from the heroes of Western literature, whose actions are mostly directed by the pursuit of personal happiness, career, and enrichment. Heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine their personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.
Russian writers asserted their bright ideals primarily by artistic images of people with warm hearts, an inquisitive mind, a rich soul (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Rudin, Katerina Kabanova, Andrei Bolkonsky, etc.)
By truthfully covering Russian reality, Russian writers did not lose faith in the bright future of their homeland. They believed that the Russian people "will pave the way for themselves ..."
Literature and Library Science
Questions of humanism - respect for a person - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These issues were especially acute in extreme situations for mankind, and above all during the civil war, when a grand clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction.
Federal Agency for Railway Transport
Siberian State Transport University
Department "_________________________________________________"
(department name)
"The problem of humanism in literature"
on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.
In the discipline "Culturology"
Head Developed
d ocent student group D-112
Bystrova A.N. ___________ Khodchenko S.D.
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Introduction ………………………………………………………… |
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Humanism of Pisemsky (on the example of the novel "The Rich Bridegroom" |
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The problem of humanism in the novel "Impatience of the Heart" by S. Zweig ………………………………………………………… .. |
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Introduction
Questions of humanism - respect for a person - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These issues were especially acute in extreme situations for mankind, and above all during the civil war, when a grand clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of the time, the problem of identifying priorities, the choice between one's own life and the lives of others, is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the abstract the author will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.
Abstract topic - "The problem of humanism in literature."
The theme of humanism is eternal in literature. Artists of the word of all times and peoples turned to her. They did not just show sketches of life, but tried to understand the circumstances that prompted a person to take one or another action. The issues raised by the author are varied and complex. They cannot be answered simply, in monosyllables. They require constant reflection and search for an answer.
As a hypothesis the position was adopted that the solution to the problem of humanism in literature is determined by the historical era (the time of creation of the work) and the worldview of the author.
Objective: identification of the peculiarities of the problem of humanism in domestic and foreign literature.
1) consider the definition of "humanism" in the reference literature;
2) to reveal the peculiarities of solving the problem of humanism in literature on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.
1. The concept of humanism
A person engaged in science encounters terms that are generally understood and commonly used for all fields of knowledge and for all languages. The concept of "humanism" also belongs to them. According to AF Losev's precise remark, "this term turned out to have a very deplorable fate, which was, incidentally, of all other too popular terms, namely, the fate of enormous uncertainty, ambiguity and often even banal superficiality." The etymological nature of the term "humanism" is dual, that is, it goes back to two Latin words: humus - soil, earth; humanitas - humanity. In other words, even the origin of the term is ambiguous and carries a charge of two elements: the earthly, material element and the element of human relationships.
To move further in the study of the problem of humanism, let us turn to dictionaries. Here is how the explanatory "Dictionary of the Russian language" by SI Ozhegov interprets the meaning of this word: “1. Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people. 2. Progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of man from the ideological stagnation of feudalism and Catholicism. " 2 And here is how the Big Dictionary of Foreign Words defines the meaning of the word “humanism”: “Humanism is a worldview imbued with love for people, respect for human dignity, concern for the welfare of people; humanism of the Renaissance (Renaissance, 14-16th centuries) - a social and literary movement that reflected the worldview of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its ideology (Catholicism, scholasticism), against the feudal enslavement of the individual and striving for the revival of the ancient ideal of beauty and humanity. "3
In the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" edited by A. Prokhorov, the following interpretation of the term humanism is given: "the recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the human welfare as a criterion for assessing social relations." 4 In other words, the compilers of this dictionary recognize the following as essential qualities of humanism: the value of a person, the assertion of his rights to freedom, to the possession of material goods.
"Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary" by E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko calls humanism "reflective anthropocentrism, which proceeds from human consciousness and has as its object the value of a person, except that it alienates a person from himself , subordinating it to superhuman forces and truths, or using it for purposes unworthy of man. " five
Turning to the dictionaries, one cannot fail to notice that each of them gives a new definition of humanism, expanding its polysemy.
2. Humanism of Pisemsky (on the example of the novel "The Rich Bridegroom")
The Rich Bridegroom was a huge success. This is a work from the life of a noble-bureaucratic province. The hero of the work, Shamilov, who aspires to a higher philosophical education, always fiddles with books that he is not able to overcome, with articles that are just beginning, with vain hopes of passing the candidate exam sometime, ruins the girl with his trashy spinelessness, then, as in what has never happened when he married a wealthy widow for convenience, and ends up with the pitiful role of a husband living on the support and under the shoe of an angry and capricious woman. People of this type are not at all to blame for the fact that they do not act in life, they are not to blame for the fact that they are useless people; but they are harmful in that they carry away with their phrases those inexperienced creatures who are seduced by their outward showiness; having carried them away, they do not satisfy their requirements; having increased their sensitivity, the ability to suffer, they do nothing to alleviate their suffering; in a word, these are swamp lights that lead them into the slums and go out when the unfortunate traveler needs light to discern his predicament. In words, these people are capable of feats, sacrifices, heroism; so at least every ordinary mortal will think when listening to their talk about a person, about a citizen and other similar abstract and lofty subjects. In fact, these flabby creatures, constantly evaporating into phrases, are not capable of either a decisive step or hard work.
Young Dobrolyubov writes in his diary in 1853: reading "The Rich Bridegroom" "awakened and defined for me the thought that had long been dormant in me and vaguely understood by me about the need for labor, and showed all the disgrace, emptiness and unhappiness of the Shamilovs. I thanked Pisemsky from the bottom of my heart. " 6
Let us consider in more detail the image of Shamilov. He spent three years at the university, hung out, listened to lectures on various subjects as incoherently and aimlessly as a child listens to the tales of an old nanny, left the university, went home, to the provinces, and said there that “I intend to take the exam for an academic degree and I came to the province to do science more conveniently. " Instead of reading seriously and consistently, he indulged himself in journal articles and immediately after reading an article, he set out on independent work; he will decide to write an article about Hamlet, then he will make a plan for a drama from Greek life; will write ten lines and throw; but he talks about his works to anyone who only agrees to listen to him. His tales interest a young girl, who in her development stands above the district society; finding in this girl a zealous listener, Shamilov draws closer to her and, having nothing to do, imagines himself to be madly in love; as for the girl, she, like a pure soul, falls in love with him in the most conscientious way and, acting boldly, out of love for him overcomes the resistance of her relatives; an engagement takes place on the condition that Shamilov receive a candidate's degree before the wedding and decide on the service. Therefore, there is a need to work, but the hero does not master a single book and begins to say: “I don’t want to study, I want to get married” 6 ... Unfortunately, he doesn't say this phrase so easily. He begins to accuse his loving bride of being cold, calls her a northern woman, complains about his fate; pretends to be passionate and fiery, comes to the bride drunk and, out of drunken eyes, is completely inappropriate and very ill-graciously embraces her. All these things are done partly out of boredom, partly because Shamilov is terribly reluctant to study for the exam; to get around this condition, he is ready to go on bread to the uncle of his bride and even to beg through the bride a secured piece of bread from an old nobleman, a former friend of her late father. All these nasty things are covered with a mantle of passionate love, which seems to darken Shamilov's reason; the implementation of these nastiness is hindered by circumstances and the firm will of an honest girl. Shamilov also arranges scenes, demands that the bride give herself to him before marriage, but she is so smart that she sees his childishness and keeps him at a respectful distance. Seeing a serious rebuff, the hero complains about his bride to a young widow and, probably to console himself, begins to declare his love to her. Meanwhile, the relationship with the bride is maintained; Shamilov is sent to Moscow to take an exam for a candidate;
6 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom", text after ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, from 95
Shamilov does not hold an exam; does not write to the bride and, finally, manages to assure himself without much difficulty that his bride does not understand him, does not love him and is not worth it. The bride dies of various shocks in consumption, and Shamilov chooses the good part, that is, marries the young widow who comforted him; it turns out to be very convenient, because this widow has a wealthy fortune. The young Shamilovs come to the city in which the whole action of the story took place; Shamilov is given a letter written to him by his deceased bride the day before his death, and about this letter the following scene occurs between our hero and his wife, worthily completing his cursory description:
“Show me the letter your friend gave you,” she began.
- What letter? Shamilov asked with mock surprise, sitting down by the window.
- Do not shut yourself up: I heard everything ... Do you understand what you are doing?
- What am I doing?
- Nothing: you only accept letters from your former friends from the person who himself was previously interested in me, and then tell him that you are now being punished - by whom? let me ask you. By me, probably? How noble and how clever! You are also considered an intelligent person; but where is your mind? what does it consist of, tell me, please? .. Show the letter!
- It is written to me, not to you; I'm not interested in your correspondence.
- I did not have and do not have any correspondence with anyone ... I will not allow you to play with me, Pyotr Alexandritch ... We were mistaken, we did not understand each other.
Shamilov was silent.
"Give me the letter, or go wherever you want now," Katerina Petrovna repeated.
- Take it. Do you really think that I attach any particular interest to him? - Said Shamilov with a sneer. And, leaving the letter on the table, he left. Katerina Petrovna began to read it with remarks. "I am writing this letter to you for the last time in my life ..."
- A sad start!
“I am not angry with you; you have forgotten your vows, you have forgotten the relationship that I, mad, considered inseparable. "
“Tell me what an inexperienced innocence! "Before me now ..."
- Boring! .. Annushka! ..
The maid came.
- Go, give this letter to the master and tell him that I advise him to make a medallion for him and keep it on his chest.
The maid left and, returning, reported to the lady:
- Pyotr Alexandritch was ordered to say that they will take care of him without your advice.
In the evening Shamilov went to Karelin's, stayed with him until midnight and, returning home, read Vera's letter several times, sighed and tore it up. The next day he asked his wife for forgiveness all morning 7.
As we can see, the problem of humanism is considered here from the position of relations between people, the responsibility of each for their actions. And the hero is a man of his time, of his era. And he is what society has made him. And this point of view echoes the position of S. Zweig in the novel "Impatience of the Heart."
7 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom", text after ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, from 203
3. The problem of humanism in the novel "Impatience of the Heart" by S. Zweig
The well-known Austrian novelist Franz Werfel very correctly pointed out the organic connection between Zweig's worldview and the ideology of bourgeois liberalism in his article "The Death of Stefan Zweig", who accurately described the social environment from which Zweig emerged as a man and an artist. "It was the world of liberal optimism, which with superstitious naivete believed in the self-contained value of man, and in essence, in the self-sufficient value of a tiny educated stratum of the bourgeoisie, in its sacred rights, the eternity of its existence, in its straightforward progress. The established order of things seemed to him protected and This humanistic optimism was the religion of Stefan Zweig, and he inherited the illusions of security from his ancestors. artist and psychologist. But above him shone the cloudless sky of his youth, which he worshiped - the sky of literature, art, the only sky that liberal optimism appreciated and knew. Obviously, the darkening of this spiritual sky was a blow for Zweig that he could not bear. .. "
Zweig's humanism already at the beginning of the artist's career acquired features of contemplation, and criticism of bourgeois reality took on a conditional, abstracted form, since Zweig did not oppose concrete and quite visible ulcers and diseases of capitalist society, but against the "eternal" Evil in the name of "eternal" Justice ...
The thirties for Zweig are years of severe spiritual crisis, inner turmoil and growing loneliness. However, the pressure of life pushed the writer in search of a solution to the ideological crisis and forced him to reconsider the ideas that underlie his humanistic principles.
Written in 1939, his first and only novel "Impatience of the Heart" also did not resolve the doubts that tormented the writer, although it contained Zweig's attempt to rethink the question of a person's life duty.
The novel is set in a small provincial town in the former Austria-Hungary on the eve of the First World War. His hero, a young lieutenant Hoffmiller, meets the daughter of a local rich man, Kekesfalva, who falls in love with him. Edith Kekesfalva is ill: her legs are paralyzed. Gofmiller is an honest person, he treats her with friendly sympathy and only out of compassion pretends to share her feelings. Not finding the courage to tell Edith directly that he does not love her, Hoffmiller gradually gets confused, agrees to marry her, but after a decisive explanation, he runs from the city. Abandoned by him, Edith commits suicide, and Hoffmiller, unwittingly, essentially becomes her killer. This is the plot of the novel. Its philosophical meaning is revealed in Zweig's reasoning about two types of compassion. One - cowardly, based on simple pity for the misfortunes of others, Zweig calls "impatience of the heart." It hides the instinctive desire of a person to protect his peace and well-being and to brush aside real help to the suffering and suffering. The other is courageous, open compassion, not afraid of the truth of life, whatever it may be, and which aims to provide real help to a person. Zweig, denying with his novel the futility of sentimental "impatience of the heart", tries to overcome the contemplation of his humanism and give it an effective character. But the writer's trouble was that he did not revise the fundamental foundations of his worldview and turned to an individual person, not wanting or not being able to understand that true humanism requires not only moral re-education of a person, but a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which will result from a collective act and creativity of the masses.
Despite the fact that the main plot of the novel "Impatience of the Heart" is based on a personal, private drama, as it were, taken out of the sphere of generally significant and important social conflicts, it was chosen by the writer in order to determine what should be the social behavior of a person 7 8.
The meaning of the tragedy was interpreted by Dr. Condor, who explained to Hoffmiller the nature of his behavior towards Edith: “There are two kinds of compassion. One faint-hearted and sentimental, it, in essence, is nothing but the impatience of the heart, hurrying to quickly get rid of the painful sensation at the sight of someone else's misfortune; it is not compassion, but only an instinctive desire to protect your peace from the suffering of your neighbor. But there is another compassion - true, which requires action, not sentimentality, it knows what it wants, and is full of determination, suffering and compassion, to do everything in human power, and even beyond them. " 9. And the hero himself reassures himself: "What was the significance of one murder, one personal guilt in comparison with thousands of murders, with the world war, with the massive destruction and destruction of human lives, the most monstrous of all that history has known?"9 10
After reading the novel, we can conclude that the norm of a person's personal and social behavior should be effective compassion, requiring practical actions from a person. The conclusion is very important, bringing Zweig closer to Gorky's understanding of humanism. True humanism requires not only the moral activity of a person, but also a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which is possible as a result of the social activity of people, their participation in historical creativity.
4. The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk")
Vasily Bykov's stories can be defined as heroic and psychological. In all his works, he portrays the war as a terrible national tragedy. But the war in Bykov's stories is not only a tragedy, but also a test of the spiritual qualities of a person, for in the most intense periods of war all the deepest recesses of the human soul were revealed. V. Bykov's heroes are full of consciousness of moral responsibility to the people for their actions. And often the problem of heroism is solved in Bykov's stories as moral and ethical. Heroism and humanism are seen as a whole. Let's consider this on the example of the story "Obelisk".
The Obelisk was first published in 1972 and immediately sparked a flood of letters that led to a debate in print. It was about the moral side of the deed of the hero of the story, Ales Morozov; one of the participants in the discussion viewed it as a feat, others as a rash decision. The discussion allowed us to penetrate into the very essence of heroism as an ideological and moral concept, allowed us to comprehend the variety of manifestations of the heroic not only during the war years, but also in peacetime.
The story is permeated with the atmosphere of contemplation characteristic of Bykov. The author is strict with himself and his generation, because the feat of the war period for him is the main measure of civic value and modern man.
At first glance, the teacher Ales Ivanovich Moroz did not accomplish the feat. During the war, he did not kill a single fascist. He worked under the invaders, taught the children at school, as before the war. But this is only at first glance. The teacher came to the Nazis when they arrested five of his students and demanded his arrival. This is the feat. True, in the story itself, the author does not give an unambiguous answer to this question. He simply introduces two political positions: Ksendzov and Tkachuk. Ksendzov is just convinced that there was no heroic deed, that the teacher Moroz is not a hero, and that means that his student Pavel Miklashevich, who miraculously escaped in those days of arrests and executions, wasted almost his entire life in order to have the name obelisk over the names of five dead disciples.
The dispute between Ksendzov and the former partisan commissar Tkachuk flared up on the day of the funeral of Miklashevich, who, like Moroz, taught in a rural school and by this alone proved his loyalty to the memory of Ales Ivanovich.
People like Ksendzov have quite reasonable arguments against Frost: after all, he himself, it turns out, went to the German commandant's office and got to open a school. But Commissar Tkachuk knows more: he adhered to the moral side of Moroz's act. "We will not teach - they will fool" 10 11 - this is the principle that is clear to the teacher, which is also clear to Tkachuk, who was sent from the partisan detachment to listen to Moroz's explanations. Both of them learned the truth: the struggle for the souls of adolescents continues during the occupation.
The teacher Moroz waged this struggle until his very last hour. He understood that the promise of the Nazis to free the guys who sabotaged the road, if their teacher appeared, was a lie. But he had no doubts about something else: if he didn’t appear, the enemies would use this fact against him, discredit everything he taught the children.
And he went to certain death. He knew that everyone would be executed - both him and the guys. And such was the moral strength of his feat that Pavlik Miklashevich, the only survivor of these guys, carried the ideas of his teacher through all life's trials. Becoming a teacher, he passed on the Morozov “leaven” to his students. Tkachuk, having learned that one of them Vitka, recently helped to catch the bandit, remarked with satisfaction: “I knew it. Miklashevich knew how to teach. Even that leaven, you can see right away ”11 12.
The story outlines the paths of three generations: Moroz, Miklashevich, Vitka. Each of them is worthy of making its own heroic path, not always clearly visible, not always recognized by everyone.
The writer makes one think about the meaning of heroism and feat that is not like the usual one, helps to delve into the moral origins of the heroic act. Before Moroz, when he was leaving the partisan detachment to the fascist commandant's office, before Miklashevich, when he was seeking the rehabilitation of his teacher, before Vitka, when he rushed to defend the girl, there was a choice. The possibility of formal justification did not suit them. Each of them acted in accordance with the judgment of his own conscience. A person like Ksendzov would most likely prefer to leave.
The controversy waged in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the continuity of heroism, dedication, and true kindness. Describing the general patterns of characters created by V. Bykov, L. Ivanova writes that the hero of his stories "... even in hopeless circumstances ... remains a person for whom the most sacred thing is not to go against his conscience, which dictates the moral maximalism of the actions he performs" 12 13.
Conclusion
By the act of his Frost V. Bykov that the law of conscience is always in force. This law has its own strict claims and its own terms of reference. And if a person, faced with a choice, voluntarily seeks to fulfill what he himself considers an internal duty, he does not care about generally accepted ideas. And the last words of S. Zweig's novel sound like a sentence: "... no guilt can be consigned to oblivion as long as the conscience remembers it." 13 14 It is this position, in my opinion, that unites the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov and S. Zweig, written in different social conditions, about people who are completely different in social and moral terms.
The controversy that is waged in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the essence of heroism, selflessness, true kindness, and therefore true humanism. The problems of the collision of good and evil, indifference and humanism are always relevant, and it seems to me that the more complicated the moral situation, the stronger the interest in it. Of course, these problems cannot be solved by a single work or even by the entire literature as a whole. Each time it is everyone's personal business. But maybe it will be easier for people to make a choice when they have a moral orientation.
List of references
- Large dictionary of foreign words: - M .: -YUNVES, 1999.
- Bykov, V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories / Preface by I. Dedkov. - M .: Det. lit., 1988.
- Zatonsky, D. Artistic landmarksXX century. - M .: Soviet writer, 1988
- Ivanova, L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979.
- Lazarev, L.I. Vasil Bykov: Essay on creativity. - M .: Art. lit., 1979
- Ozhegov, S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words / p. I. Ozhegov; Under total. Ed. Prof. M.I.Skvortsova. - 24th ed., Rev. - M .: LLC "Publishing house" ONIX 21 century ": LLC" Publishing house "Mir and Education", 2003.
- Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1987. - (The life of people noticed. Ser. Biogr .; Issue 4 (666)).
- Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. - 4th ed. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1989.
- Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. –M .: INFRA-M, 2000.
- Zweig, Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992
- Zweig, Stefan. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M .: Izd. Pravda, 1963.
- Shagalov, A.A. Vasil Bykov. War stories. - M .: Art. lit., 1989.
- Literature A.F. Pisemsky "Rich Bridegroom" / the text is printed from the publication of fiction, Moskava, 1955
2 Ozhegov S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words / p. I. Ozhegov; Under total. Ed. Prof. M.I.Skvortsova. - 24th ed., Rev. - M .: LLC "Publishing house" ONIX 21 century ": LLC" Publishing house "Mir and Education", 2003. - p. 146
3 Large dictionary of foreign words: - M .: -YUNVES, 1999. - p. 186
4 Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. - 4th ed. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1989. - p. 353
5 Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. –M .: INFRA-M, 2000. - p. 119
6 Plekhanov, S.N. Pisemsky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1987. - (The life of people noticed. Ser. Biogr .; Issue 4. 0s. 117
7 8 Stefan Zweig. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M .: Izd. "Pravda", 1963. - p. 49
8 9 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992 .-- p. 3165
9 10 Ibid., P. 314
10 11 Bulls V. V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories / Foreword by I. Dedkov. - M .: Det. Lit., 1988 .-- p. 48.
11 12 Ibid, p. 53
12 13 Ivanova L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979, p. 33.
13 14 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992 .-- from 316
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Problems of Humanism in Civil War Literature
(A. Fadeev, I. Babel, B. Lavrenev, A. Tolstoy)
Questions of humanism - respect for a person - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These issues were especially acute in extreme situations for mankind, and above all during the civil war, when a grand clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of that time, the problem of identifying priorities, the choice between the life of several people and the interests of a large group of people is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the future we will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.
One of the most striking works about the civil war, perhaps, should include the cycle of stories by Isaac Babel "Cavalry". And in one of them a seditious thought about the International is expressed: "It is eaten with gunpowder and spiced with the best blood." This is the story "Gedali", which is a kind of dialogue about the revolution. Along the way, the conclusion is drawn that the revolution must “shoot” precisely because of its revolutionary character. After all good people mingled with evil people, making a revolution and at the same time opposing it. Alexander Fadeev's story "The Defeat" also echoes this idea. An important place in this story is occupied by the description of events seen through the eyes of Mechik - an intellectual who accidentally ended up in a partisan detachment. The soldiers cannot forgive neither him nor Lyutov, the hero of Babel, for the presence of glasses and their own beliefs in their heads, as well as manuscripts and photographs of their beloved girl in a chest and other similar things. Lyutov gained the trust of the soldiers by taking the goose from the helpless old woman, and lost it when he could not finish off his dying comrade, and Mechik never won trust at all. There are, of course, many differences in the description of these heroes. I. Babel clearly empathizes with Lyutov, if only because his hero is autobiographical, and A. Fadeev, on the contrary, in every possible way seeks to denigrate the intelligentsia in the person of Mechik. He describes even his most noble motives in very pitiful words and somehow tearfully, and at the end of the story he puts the hero in such a position that Mechik's chaotic actions take the form of open betrayal. And all because Mechik is a humanist, and the moral principles of the partisans (or rather, their almost complete absence) raise doubts in him, he is not sure of the correctness of revolutionary ideals.
One of the most serious humanistic issues considered in the literature on the civil war is the problem of what a detachment should do with its seriously wounded soldiers in a difficult situation: carry them, taking them with them, subjecting the entire detachment to risk, throw them, leaving them to a painful death , or finish.
In Boris Lavrenev's story "Forty-first" this question, which is raised many times in the entire world literature, sometimes turning into a dispute about the painless killing of the hopelessly sick, is resolved in favor of killing a person completely and irrevocably. Out of the twenty-five people of Evsyukov's detachment, less than half remains alive - the rest fell behind in the desert, and the commissar shot them with his own hand. Was this decision humane in relation to the lagging comrades? It is impossible to say exactly the total, because life is full of accidents, and everything could perish, or everything could survive. Fadeev resolves similar issues in the same way, but with much greater moral torment of the heroes. And the unfortunate intellectual Mechik, accidentally learning about the fate of the sick Frolov, who was almost his friend, about the cruel decision he had made, tries to prevent this. His humanistic convictions do not allow him to accept murder in this form. However, this attempt in the description of A. Fadeev looks like a shameful manifestation of cowardice. Ba-Belevsky Lutov does almost the same thing in a similar situation. He cannot shoot a dying comrade, although he himself asks him to do so. But his friend fulfills the request of the wounded without hesitation and also wants to shoot Lyutov for treason. Another Red Army soldier Lyutova regrets and treats him to an apple. In this situation, Lyutov is more likely to be understood than people who shoot enemies with the same ease, then their friends, and then treat the survivors with apples! However, Lyutov soon gets along with such people - in one of the stories he almost burned down the house where he spent the night, and all so that the hostess would bring him food.
Here another humanistic question arises: do the fighters of the revolution have the right to robbery? Of course, it can also be called requisition or borrowing for the benefit of the proletariat, but this does not change the essence of the matter. Yevsyukov's detachment takes camels from the Kyrgyz, although everyone understands that after that the Kyrgyz are doomed, Levinson's partisans take the pig from the Korean, although for him it is the only hope for him to survive the winter, and Babel's cavalrymen carry carts with looted (or requisitioned) things, "The men with their horses are buried from our red eagles in the forests." Such actions generally cause contradiction. On the one hand, the Red Army men are making a revolution for the benefit of the common people, on the other hand, they are robbing, killing and raping the same people. Do the people need such a revolution?
Another problem that arises in human relations is the question of whether love can take place in war. Let us recall on this occasion the story of Boris Lavrenev "The Forty First" and the story of Alexei Tolstoy "The Viper". In the first work, the heroine - a former fisherwoman, a Red Army woman and a Bolshevik woman - falls in love with a captured enemy and, then finding herself in a difficult situation, she herself kills him. And what could she do? In "Viper" the matter is a little bit different. There, a noble girl twice becomes an accidental victim of the revolution and, being in the hospital, falls in love with a random Red Army soldier. The war has mutilated her soul so much that it is not difficult for her to kill a person.
The civil war put people in such conditions that there can be no talk of any love. The place remains only for the most rude and brutal feelings. And if someone dares to make sincere love, then everything will end up tragically. The war destroyed all the usual human values, turned everything upside down. In the name of the future happiness of mankind - the humanistic ideal - such terrible crimes were committed that are in no way compatible with the principles of humanism. The question of whether the future happiness is worth such a sea of \u200b\u200bblood is still not resolved by humanity, but in general such a theory has many examples of what happens when the choice is made in favor of murder. And if all the brutal instincts of the crowd are released one fine day, then such a quarrel, such a war will surely be the last in the life of mankind.
Humanism in the works of Thomas More "Utopia" and Evgeny Zamyatin "We"
Introduction
Today the whole world is going through difficult times. The new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities changed radically. The common core of cultural life - the centralized management system and a unified cultural policy - disappeared. Determining the paths for further cultural development has become a matter of society itself and a subject of disagreement. The absence of a unifying sociocultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis in which the culture of all mankind found itself by the beginning of the 21st century.
Humanism (from Latin humanitas - humanity, Latin humanus - human, Latin homo - man) - a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of \u200b\u200bman as the highest value; emerged as a philosophical movement during the Renaissance.
Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognize the value of a person as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declare the principles of equality and humanity to be the norm in relations between people. Among the values \u200b\u200bof traditional culture, the most important place was occupied by the values \u200b\u200bof humanism (goodness, justice, non-acquisitiveness, the search for truth), which was reflected in the classical literature of any country, including England.
Over the past 15 years, these values \u200b\u200bhave experienced a certain crisis. The ideas of ownership and self-sufficiency (the cult of money) were opposed to humanism. As an ideal, people were offered a “self-mademan” - a person who made himself and does not need any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - have lost their former attractiveness and are now not even included in the program documents of most parties and governments of various countries of the world. Our society gradually began to turn into nuclear, when its individual members began to isolate themselves within the framework of their home and their own family.
The relevance of the topic I have chosen is due to a problem that has bothered humanity for thousands of years and worries now - the problem of philanthropy, tolerance, respect for one's neighbor, an urgent need to discuss this topic.
With my research, I would like to show that the problem of humanism, which arose in the Renaissance, which found its reflection in the works of both English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.
And for starters, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering its appearance in England.
1.1 The emergence of humanism in England. The history of the development of humanism in English literature
The birth of a new historical thought belongs to the late Middle Ages, when the process of disintegration of feudal relations was actively going on in the most advanced countries of Western Europe and a new capitalist mode of production was emerging. It was a transitional period, when centralized states took shape everywhere in the form of absolute monarchies on the scale of entire countries or individual territories, the prerequisites for the formation of bourgeois nations arose, and an extreme aggravation of social struggle took place. The bourgeoisie emerging among the urban elite was then a new, progressive stratum and in its ideological struggle against the ruling class of feudal lords acted as a representative of all lower strata of society.
New ideas find their most vivid expression in the humanistic worldview, which had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge of this transition period. The new worldview was basically secular, hostile to the purely theological interpretation of the world that prevailed in the Middle Ages. He was characterized by the desire to explain all phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of reason (rationalism), to reject the blind authority of faith, which so much hindered the development of human thought. Humanists worshiped the human personality, admired it as the highest creation of nature, the bearer of reason, high feelings and virtues; the humanist, as it were, opposed the creator to the blind power of divine providence. The humanistic worldview was characterized by individualism, which at the first stage of its history, in essence, acted as an instrument of ideological protest against the estate-corporate structure of feudal society, which suppressed the human personality, against the church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still tempered by the active public interests of most of its leaders, it was far from the egoism inherent in the later developed forms of the bourgeois worldview.
Finally, the humanistic worldview was characterized by a greedy interest in ancient culture in all its manifestations. Humanists sought to "revive", that is, to make a role model, the work of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the XII century. In medieval culture, interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the period of the emergence of the humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance), this trend became dominant.
The rationalism of the humanists was based on idealism, which largely determined their view of the world. As representatives of the then intelligentsia, humanists were far from the people, and often openly hostile to them. But for all that, the humanistic worldview at the time of its heyday was of a pronounced progressive character, was the banner of the struggle against feudal ideology, and was imbued with a humane attitude towards people. On the basis of this new ideological trend in Western Europe, it became possible to develop free scientific knowledge, which had previously been hampered by the dominance of theological thinking.
The revival is associated with the formation of a secular culture, humanistic consciousness. The Renaissance philosophy is defined by:
Striving for a person;
Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;
Life-affirming and optimistic character.
In the second half of the XIV century. the tendency to attach the greatest importance to the study of humanistic literature and to regard classical Latin and Greek antiquity as the only example and model for everything related to spiritual and cultural activity was revealed and then increased more and more over the next two centuries (reaching its highest point, especially in the 15th century).
The essence of humanism lies not in the fact that it turned to the past, but in the way it is cognized, in the relation in which it is to this past: it is the relation to the culture of the past and to the past that clearly defines the essence of humanism. Humanists discover the classics because they separate, without mixing, their own from the Latin. It was humanism that really discovered antiquity, the same Virgil or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because it returned Virgil to his time and his world, and sought to explain Aristotle within the framework of problems and within the framework of the knowledge of Athens in the 4th century BC. Humanism does not distinguish between the discovery of the ancient world and the discovery of man, because they are all one; to discover the ancient world as such is to measure oneself with it, and separate, and establish a relationship with it. Determine the time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. It is no coincidence that the great humanists were mostly state people, active people, whose free creativity in public life was in demand by their time.
The literature of the English Renaissance developed in the closest connection with the literature of European humanism. England later than other countries took the path of development of a humanistic culture. English humanists learned from the continental humanists. Especially significant was the influence of Italian humanism, dating back in its beginnings to the XIV and XV centuries. Italian literature, from Petrarch to Tasso, was, in essence, a school for English humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, a rich treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from which all English humanists, from Thomas More to Bacon drew their ideas. and Shakespeare. Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was in Renaissance England one of the first and basic principles of all education in general. Many Englishmen traveled to Italy to personally get in touch with the life of this advanced country of the then Europe.
The first center of humanistic culture in England was Oxford University. From here began to spread the light of a new science and a new worldview, which impregnated all English culture and gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared who led the struggle against the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who studied in Italy and took over there the foundations of new philosophy and science. They were passionate admirers of antiquity. Having passed the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scholars did not limit themselves to popularizing the achievements of their Italian counterparts. They grew up to be independent scientists.
The English humanists took from their Italian teachers an admiration for the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.
The activities of the first English humanists were predominantly scientific and theoretical. They worked out general questions of religion, philosophy, social life and education. Early English humanism of the early 16th century was most fully expressed in the work of Thomas More.
1.2. The emergence of humanism in Russia. The history of the development of humanism in Russian literature.
Already in the first significant Russian poets of the 18th century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - one can find nationalism combined with humanism. It is no longer holy Russia, but Great Russia that inspires them; the national epic, the rapture with the greatness of Russia, relate entirely to the empirical existence of Russia, without any historical and philosophical justification.
Derzhavin, a true "singer of Russian glory", defends human freedom and dignity. In verses written for the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (future Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:
"Be your master's passions,
Be a man on the throne. "
This motif of pure humanism is increasingly becoming the crystallization core of the new ideology.
Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and early 19th centuries played an enormous role in the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterbalance to the atheistic currents of the 18th century, and in this sense was an expression of the religious needs of the Russian people of that time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, captivating with its idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, was itself a phenomenon of extra-church religiosity, free from any church authority. Capturing significant strata of Russian society, Freemasonry undoubtedly raised creative movements in the soul, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened intellectual interests.
This humanism was based on a reaction against the one-sided intellectualism of the era. The favorite formula here was the thought that "enlightenment without a moral ideal carries with it poison." In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, moral motives played a significant role.
Also, all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were formed - and in the first place there was a consciousness of duty to serve society, and practical idealism in general. This was the path of ideological life and effective service to the ideal.
2.1. Humanism in the works “Utopia” by Thomas More and “We” by Yevgeny Zamyatin.
Thomas More in his work “Utopia” speaks of universal equality. But is there a place for humanism in this equality?
What is utopia?
“Utopia - (from the Greek u - no and topos - a place - that is, a place that does not exist; according to another version, from eu - good and topos - a place, that is, a blessed country), an image of an ideal social system, devoid of scientific justification; science fiction genre; designation of all works containing unrealistic plans for social transformations. " ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. Dahl)
A similar term originated thanks to the very same Thomas More.
Simply put, utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life arrangement.
Thomas More lived at the beginning of modern times (1478-1535), when the wave of humanism and the Renaissance swept across Europe. Most of Mohr's literary and political works are of historical interest for us. Only Utopia (published in 1516) has retained its significance for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a work of socialist thought that is genius in its design.
The book was written in the then popular genre of the "traveler's story". Allegedly, a certain navigator Raphael Gitlodey visited the unknown island of Utopia, whose social structure impressed him so much that he tells others about it.
Knowing well the social and moral life of his homeland, the English humanist, Thomas More, was imbued with sympathy for the misfortunes of its masses. These moods of his were reflected in the famous work with a long title in the spirit of that time - "A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best state structure and the new island of Utopia ...". This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not prevent Soviet researchers from calling Mora almost the first communist.
The humanistic worldview of the author of "Utopia" led him to conclusions of great social acuteness and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The author's insight was by no means limited to a statement of the terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that when carefully observing the life of not only England, but also of "all states", they do not represent "nothing but some conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under in the name of the state who think about their own benefits ”.
Already these profound statements suggested to Mora the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of Utopia. Numerous researchers of this work have ascertained not only direct, but also indirect references to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily the Gospels), especially those of ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that had the greatest impact on Mora, Plato's "State" stands out. Many humanists saw Utopia as a long-awaited rival to this greatest work of political thought, a work that had existed for nearly two millennia by that time.
In the mainstream of humanistic searches, creatively synthesizing the ideological heritage of antiquity and the Middle Ages and boldly rationally juxtaposing political and ethnic theories with the social development of that era, Mora's "Utopia" arises, reflecting and originally comprehending the entire depth of socio-political conflicts of the era of decomposition of feudalism and initial accumulation of capital.
After reading Mora's book, one is greatly surprised at how much the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is good for a person and what is bad has changed since the time of Mora. To an ordinary citizen of the XXI century, Mora's book, which laid the foundation for a whole "genre of utopias", does not at all seem like a model of an ideal state. Rather, the opposite is true. I really would not want to live in the society described by More. Euthanasia for the sick and the decrepit, compulsory labor service, according to which you must work as a farmer for at least 2 years, and after that you can be sent to the fields during the harvest. "All men and women have one common occupation - agriculture, from which no one is spared." But on the other hand, the Utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and all the dirty, hard and dangerous work is done by slaves. The mention of slavery makes you wonder if this work is so utopian? Are the townsfolk so equal in it?
Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, the slaves in “Utopia” do not work for the benefit of the master, but for the whole society as a whole (by the way, the same thing happened under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for free for the benefit of the Motherland). To become a slave, you must commit a serious crime (including treason or debauchery). Slaves are engaged in hard physical work until the end of their days, but in the case of diligent labor, they can even be pardoned.
Mora's utopia is not even a state in the usual sense of the word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard houses, and ten years later, you will exchange housing with other families by lot. It is not even a house, but rather a dormitory in which many families live - small primary units of local government, headed by an elected leader, syphogrants or philarchs. Naturally, a common household is being conducted, they eat together, all matters are resolved jointly. There are severe restrictions on freedom of movement, in the event of repeated unauthorized absences you will be punished by making you a slave.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe Iron Curtain is also realized in Utopia: she lives in complete isolation from the world around her.
The attitude towards parasites is very strict here - every citizen either works on the land or must master a certain craft (moreover, a useful craft). Only a select few who have shown special abilities are exempt from physical labor and can become scientists or philosophers. Everyone wears the same, the simplest, clothes made of rough cloth, and, while doing business, a person takes off his clothes so as not to wear them out, and puts on rough skins or skins. There are no excesses, everything is only the most necessary. The food is divided equally, and all the surplus is given to others, and the best food is transferred to hospitals. There is no money, and the wealth accumulated by the state is kept in the form of debt obligations in other countries. The same reserves of gold and silver that are in Utopia itself are used to make chamber pots, garbage cans, as well as to create shameful chains and hoops that are hung on criminals as punishment. All this, according to Mora, should destroy citizens' craving for money-grubbing.
It seems to me that the island described by More is some kind of frenzied notion of collective farms.
The prudence and practicality of the author's eyes are striking. In many ways, he approaches social relations in the society he invented as an engineer who creates the most effective mechanism. For example, the fact that Utopians prefer not to fight, but to bribe their opponents. Or, for example, the custom that people who choose a mate for marriage are obliged to view him or her naked.
Any progress in the life of Utopia is meaningless. There are no factors in society that force the development of science and technology, change the attitude towards some things. Life as it is suits the citizens and some kind of deviation is simply not needed.
The Utopian Society is limited on all sides. There is practically no freedom in anything. Equal power over equals is not equality. There can be no state in which there is no power - otherwise it is anarchy. Well, since there is power, then equality can no longer be. The man in charge of the lives of others is always in
privileged position.
Communism is literally built on the island: from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. All are obliged to work in agriculture and crafts. The family is the basic unit of society. Her work is controlled by the state, and what is produced is handed over to the general piggy bank. The family is considered a public workshop, and not necessarily based on consanguinity. If children do not like their parents' craft, they can move to another family. It's easy to imagine what kind of excitement this will result in in practice.
Utopians live boring and monotonous. Their whole life is regulated from the very beginning. Lunch, however, is allowed not only in the public dining room, but also in the family. Education is publicly available and is based on a combination of theory with practical work. That is, children are given a standard set of knowledge, and in parallel they are taught to work.
Socialist theorists especially praised Mora for the absence of private property on Utopia. In the words of Moore himself, "wherever there is private property, where everything is measured in money, it is hardly ever possible for the state to be governed justly or happily." And in general, "there is only one way for public welfare - to declare equality in everything."
The Utopians strongly condemn war. But here, too, this principle is not fully observed. Naturally, Utopians fight when they defend their limits. But they are at war
also in the case “when some people, oppressed
tyranny ”. In addition, “the utopians consider the most fair
the reason for the war, when some people themselves do not use their land, but owns it as if in vain and in vain. " Having studied these causes of war, we can conclude that the Utopians must fight constantly until they build communism and "world peace." For there is always a reason. Moreover, “Utopia”, in fact, should be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states wage war when it suits them, then Utopians always, if there are reasons for it. After all, they cannot remain indifferent for ideological reasons.
All these facts, one way or another, suggest the thought: was Utopia a utopia in the full sense of the word? Was it the ideal system to strive for?
On this note, I would like to refer to the work of E. Zamyatin "We".
It should be noted that Evgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884-1937), who is a rebel by nature and outlook, was not a contemporary of Thomas More, but found the time of the creation of the USSR. The author is almost unknown to a wide circle of Russian readers, since the works written by him back in the 1920s were published only in the late 1980s. The writer spent the last years of his life in France, where he died in 1937, but he never considered himself an emigrant - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.
E. Zamyatin's work is extremely diverse. He has written a large number of novellas and novels, among which the dystopia "We" occupies a special place. Dystopia is a genre that is also called negative utopia. This image of such a possible future, which frightens the writer, makes him worry about the fate of humanity, for the soul of an individual, a future in which the problem of humanism and freedom is acute.
The novel "We" was written shortly after the author's return from England to revolutionary Russia in 1920 (according to some reports, work on the text continued in 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for massive criticism of E. Zamyatin, and the author was forced to defend himself, make excuses, explain himself, since the novel was regarded as his political mistake and "a manifestation of sabotage to the interests of Soviet literature." After another study at the next meeting of the writers' community, E. Zamyatin announced his withdrawal from the All-Russian Union of Writers. Discussion of Zamyatin's "case" was a signal for a toughening of the party's policy in the field of literature: it was 1929 - the year of the Great turning point, the onset of Stalinism. It became senseless and impossible for Zamyatin to work as a writer in Russia, and, with the permission of the government, he went abroad in 1931.
E. Zamyatin creates the novel "We" in the form of diary entries of one of the "lucky". The city-state of the future is filled with bright rays of the gentle sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-narrator himself. He deduces a mathematical formula, proving to himself and to us, the readers, that “freedom and crime are as inextricably linked as movement and speed ...”. He sarcastically sees happiness in the restriction of freedom.
The narration is a note-summary of the builder of the spaceship (in our time he would be called the chief designer). He talks about that period of his life, which he would later define as a disease. Each entry (there are 40 of them in the novel) has its own title, consisting of several sentences. It is interesting to trace that usually the first sentences denote the micro theme of the chapter, and the last one gives an outlet to its idea: “Bell. Mirror sea. I will burn forever ”,“ Yellow. 2D shadow. An incurable soul ”,“ Copyright. The ice is swelling. The hardest love. "
What immediately alarms the reader? - not "I think", but "we think." A great scientist, a talented engineer, does not recognize himself as a person, does not think about the fact that he does not have his own name and, like the rest of the inhabitants of the Great State, he wears the "number" - D-503. “No one is 'one', but 'one of'. Looking ahead, we can say that in the most bitter moment for him he will think about his mother: for her he would not be the Builder of the "Integral", number D-503, but would be "a simple human piece - a piece of herself."
The world of the One State, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where people-numbers live ("divine parallelepipeds of transparent dwellings"), straight visible streets, squares ("Square Cuba. Sixty-six powerful concentric circles: tribunes. And sixty-six rows: quiet lamps of faces ... "). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they bear the stamp of this world: “Round, smooth balls of heads floated by - and turned around”. The sterile clear glass surfaces make the world of the One State even more lifeless, cold, surreal. The architecture is strictly functional, devoid of the slightest decoration, "unnecessary", and this is a parody of the aesthetic utopias of the futurists of the early twentieth century, where glass and concrete were glorified as new building materials for the technical future.
The inhabitants of the United State are so devoid of individuality that they differ only in their index numbers. All life in the One State is based on mathematical, rational foundations: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. All are happy arithmetic mean, impersonal, devoid of individuality. The emergence of geniuses is impossible, creative inspiration is perceived as an unknown type of epilepsy.
One or another number (a resident of the United State) has no value in the eyes of others and is easily replaceable. Thus, the death of several "gape" builders of the "Integral", who perished while testing the ship, the purpose of which is to "integrate" the universe, is indifferently perceived by the numbers.
Individual numbers who have shown a penchant for independent thinking are undergoing the Great Operation to remove fantasy, which kills the ability to think. A question mark - this is evidence of doubt - does not exist in the One State, but in excess, of course, there is an exclamation mark.
Not only the state regards any personal manifestation as a crime, but the numbers do not feel the need to be a person, a human individual with their own unique world.
The protagonist of the novel D-503 cites the story of the “three let go”, well known to every schoolchild in the United State. This story is about how three numbers, as an experience, were released from work for a month. However, the unfortunate ones returned to their workplace and for hours on end made those movements that at a certain time of the day were already a need of their body (sawing, planing air, etc.). On the tenth day, unable to bear it, they joined hands and entered the water to the sound of the march, sinking deeper and deeper until the water stopped their torment. For the numbers, the guiding hand of the Benefactor has become a need, complete submission to the control of the guardian-spies:
“It is so nice to feel someone's keen eye, lovingly protecting from the slightest mistake, from the slightest wrong step. It may sound a little sentimental, but the same analogy comes to my mind again: the guardian angels that the ancients dreamed of. How much of what they only dreamed of materialized in our life ... "
On the one hand, the human person realizes himself equal to the whole world, and on the other hand, powerful dehumanizing factors appear and increase, first of all, technical civilization, which introduces a mechanistic, hostile beginning to man, since the means of influence of technical civilization on a person, means of manipulating his consciousness become more and more powerful, global.
One of the most important issues that the author is trying to solve is the issue of freedom of choice and freedom in general.
Both Mora and Zamyatin have compulsory equality. People cannot be any different from their own kind.
Modern researchers, the main difference between dystopia and utopia, is that “utopians are looking for ways to create an ideal world, which will be based on the synthesis of the postulates of goodness, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And dystopians strive to understand how the human person will feel in this exemplary atmosphere. "
Not only equality of rights and opportunities is clearly expressed, but also compulsory material equality. And all this is combined with total control and restriction of freedoms. This control is needed to maintain material equality: people are not allowed to stand out, do more, surpass their own kind (thus becoming unequal). But this is everyone's natural desire.
Not a single social utopia speaks of specific people. The masses, or individual social groups, are considered everywhere. The individual is nothing in these works. "One is zero, one is nonsense!" The problem with utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole and not about specific people. As a result, complete equality is realized, but this is the equality of unhappy people.
Is human happiness possible with utopia? Happiness from what? From victories? So they are performed by all equally. Everyone is involved in it and, at the same time, no one. From lack of exploitation? So in utopia, it is replaced by a public
exploitation: a person is forced to work all his life, but not for a capitalist and
on yourself, but on society. Moreover, this social exploitation is even worse, so
how here a person has no way out. If, working for a capitalist, you can quit, then you cannot hide from society. Yes, and move somewhere
forbidden.
It is difficult to name even one freedom that is observed on Utopia. There is no freedom of movement, no freedom to choose how to live. A person driven into a corner by society without the right to choose is deeply unhappy. He has no hope of change. He feels like a slave, locked in a cage. People cannot live in a cage, neither material nor social. Claustrophobia starts, they want change. But this is not feasible. The Utopian society is a society of deeply unhappy, depressed people. People with depressed consciousness and lack of willpower.
Therefore, it should be recognized that the model of the development of society, proposed to us by Thomas More, seemed ideal only in the 16-17 centuries. In the future, with an increase in attention to the individual, she lost all sense of realization, because if one builds a society of the future, then it must be a society of expressed individuals, a society of strong personalities, and not mediocre ones.
Considering the novel "We", first of all, it is necessary to indicate that it is closely related to soviet history, the history of Soviet literature. The ideas of ordering life were characteristic of all literature of the first years of Soviet power. In our computerized, robotic era, when the "average" person becomes an appendage to the machine, is only able to press buttons, ceasing to be a creator, thinker, the novel becomes more and more relevant.
E. Zamyatin himself noted his novel as a signal of the danger threatening man and mankind from the hypertrophied power of machines and the power of the state - no matter what.
In my opinion, in his novel E. Zamyatin asserts the idea that the right to choose is always inseparable from a person. The refraction of "I" into "we" cannot be natural. If a person succumbs to the influence of an inhuman totalitarian system, then he ceases to be a person. It is impossible to build the world only by reason, forgetting that a person has a soul. The machine world should not exist without a world, a humane world.
The conceptual arrangements of the United State of Zamyatin and Mora's Utopia are very similar. Although there are no mechanisms in Mora's work, the rights and freedoms of people are also squeezed by the grip of certainty and predetermination.
Conclusion
In his book, Thomas More tried to find the traits that an ideal society should have. Reflections on the best state system took place against the background of cruel morals, inequality and social contradictions in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Yevgeny Zamyatin wrote about the premises of which he saw with his own eyes. At the same time, the thoughts of Mora and Zamyatin for the most part are just hypotheses, a subjective vision of the world.
Mohr's ideas were certainly progressive for their time, but they did not take into account one important detail, without which Utopia is a society without a future. The utopian socialists did not take human psychology into account. The fact is that any Utopia, making people forcibly equal, denies the possibility of making them happy. After all, a happy person is one who feels himself in something better, in something superior to others. He can be richer, smarter, more beautiful, kinder. Utopians, however, deny any opportunity for such a person to stand out. He must dress like everyone else, study like everyone else, have exactly as much property as everyone else. But man, by nature, strives for the best for himself. Utopian socialists proposed punishing any deviation from the norm set by the state, while simultaneously trying to change the mentality of a person. Make him a non-ambitious, obedient robot, a cog in the system.
Zamyatin's dystopia, in turn, shows what can be, if this “ideal” of society, proposed by the utopians, is achieved.
But it is impossible to completely isolate people from the outside world. There will always be those who, even out of the corner of their eye, will know the joy of freedom. And it will no longer be possible to drive such people into the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And in the end, it is precisely such people, who have learned the joy of doing what they want, who will bring down the entire system, the entire state system, which happened in our country in the early 90s.
What kind of society can rightfully be called ideal, given the achievements of modern sociological thought? It will undoubtedly be a society of complete equality. But equality in rights and opportunities. And it will be a society of complete freedom. Freedom of thought and speech, action and movement. The closest thing to the described ideal is modern Western society. It has many disadvantages, but it makes people happy.
If society is really ideal, how can there be no freedom in it? ..
Anthology of world political science thought. In 5 volumes.Vol. 1. - M .: Thought, 1997.
World history in 10 volumes, V.4. Moscow: Publishing House of Social and Economic Literature, 1958.
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Alekseev M.P. "The Slavic Sources of Thomas More's Utopia", 1955
Varshavsky A.S. “Ahead of time. Thomas More. Essay on life and work ", 1967.
Volodin A.I. "Utopia and History", 1976
Zastenker N.E. "Utopian Socialism", 1973
Kautsky K. "Thomas More and His Utopia", 1924.
Bak D. P., E. A. Shklovsky, A. N., Arkhangelsky. "All the heroes of the works of Russian literature." - M .: AST, 1997.-448 p.
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T.V. Pavlovets "Text analysis. Main content. Works ".- M .: Bustard, 2000.-123 p.
Dictionary of Medical Terms
humanism (lat.humanus human, humane)
a system of beliefs that recognizes the value of a person as a person, characterized by the protection of his dignity and freedom of development, considering the good of a person as the main criterion for assessing social institutions, and the principles of equality and justice
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
humanism
humanism, pl. no, m. (from Latin humanus - human) (book).
The ideological movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of the human person and thought from the shackles of feudalism and Catholicism (history).
Enlightened philanthropy (outdated).
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.
humanism
Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people.
The progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at freeing man from the ideological enslavement of the times of feudalism.
adj. humanistic, th, th.
New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
humanism
A historically changing system of views that recognizes the value of a person as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations.
the ideological and cultural movement of the Renaissance, opposing scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church with the principle of free all-round development of the human personality.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
humanism
HUMANISM (from Lat. Humanus - human, humane) recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations. In a narrower sense, the secular free-thinking of the Renaissance, opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, is associated with the study of the newly discovered works of classical antiquity.
Big Law Dictionary
humanism
(humanism principle) - one of the principles of law in a democratic state. In a broad sense, it means a historically changing system of views on society and a person, imbued with respect for the individual. G.'s principle is enshrined in Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation: "Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value", as well as in Art. 7 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, art. 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR and other legislative acts. In criminal law, it means that punishment and other measures of a criminal-legal nature applied to a person who committed a crime cannot cause physical suffering or humiliate human dignity.
Humanism
(from lat.humanus - human, humane), a historically changing system of views, recognizing the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social institutions, and the principles of equality, justice, humanity the desired norm of relations between people.
G.'s ideas have a long history. The motives of humanity, philanthropy, dreams of happiness and justice can be found in the works of oral folk art, in literature, moral, philosophical and religious concepts of various peoples since ancient times. But G.'s system of views was first formed during the Renaissance. G. acted at this time as a broad current of social thought, embracing philosophy, philology, literature, art and imprinted in the consciousness of the era. Georgia was formed in the struggle against feudal ideology, religious dogma, and the spiritual dictatorship of the church. Humanists, having revived many literary monuments of classical antiquity, used them to develop secular culture and education. They opposed secular knowledge to theological and scholastic knowledge, to religious asceticism - the enjoyment of life, the humiliation of man - the ideal of a free, comprehensively developed personality. In the 14th and 15th centuries. Italy was the center of humanistic thought (F. Petrarca, G. Boccaccio, Lorenzo Balla, Picodella Mirandola, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and others), then G. spread to other European countries simultaneously with the Reformation movement. Many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of H. - M. Montaigne, F. Rabelais (France), W. Shakespeare, F. Bacon (England), L. Vives, M. Cervantes (Spain), W. Gutten, A. Durer (Germany), Erasmus of Rotterdam, and others. The Renaissance G. was one of the main expressions of that revolution in culture and worldview, which reflected the beginning of the formation of capitalist relations. The further development of G.'s ideas is associated with social thought during the period of bourgeois revolutions (17th and early 19th centuries). The ideologists of the nascent bourgeoisie developed the ideas of the "natural rights" of man, put forward as a criterion for the suitability of a social structure its correspondence to the abstract "nature of man", educators of the 18th century - P. Holbach, A. K. Helvetius, D. Diderot, and others - clearly linked Germany with materialism and atheism. A number of G.'s principles were developed in German classical philosophy. I. Kant put forward the idea of \u200b\u200beternal peace, formulated a proposition that expresses the essence of G., that a person can be for another person only a goal, not a means. True, the implementation of these principles was ascribed by Kant to an indefinite future.
The system of humanistic views, created in the conditions of rising capitalism, was a great achievement of social thought. At the same time, it was internally contradictory and historically limited, for it was based on an individualistic concept of personality, on an abstract understanding of man. This contradictoriness of abstract capitalism was clearly revealed with the assertion of capitalism, a system where, in direct opposition to the ideals of capitalism, a person is transformed into a means of capital production, subject to the domination of spontaneous social forces and laws alien to him, the capitalist division of labor, which disfigures the individual and makes it one-sided. The domination of private property and the division of labor gives rise to various types of human alienation. This proves that on the basis of private property the principles of G. cannot become the norms of relations between people. Criticizing private property, T. More, T. Campanella, Morelli and G. Mablely believed that only by replacing it with a community of property, humanity could achieve happiness and prosperity. These ideas were developed by the great utopian socialists A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, and R. Owen, who saw the contradictions of the already established capitalist system and, inspired by the ideals of Germany, developed projects for reforming society on the basis of socialism. However, they could not find real ways of creating a socialist society, and in their ideas about the future, along with ingenious guesses, there was a lot of fantastic things. The humanistic tradition in the social thought of Russia in the 19th century. were represented by revolutionary democrats - A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, A.N. Dobrolyubov, T.G. Shevchenko and others. G.'s ideas inspired the classics of the great Russian literature of the 19th century.
A new stage in the development of geography began with the emergence of Marxism, which rejected the abstract, ahistorical interpretation of "human nature" only as a biological "generic essence" and approved its scientific concrete historical understanding, showing that "... the essence of man ... is the totality of all social relations "(K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 3). Marxism rejected the abstract, supra-class approach to the problems of geography and placed them on a real historical basis, formulated a new concept of geography - proletarian, or socialist, geography, which has absorbed the best achievements of humanistic thought of the past. K. Marx was the first to define the real ways of realizing the ideals of Germany, linking it with the scientific theory of social development, with the revolutionary movement of the proletariat, and with the struggle for communism. Communism eliminates private property and exploitation of man by man, national oppression and racial discrimination, social antagonisms and wars, eliminates all forms of alienation, puts the achievements of science and culture at the service of man, creates material, social and spiritual prerequisites for the harmonious and all-round development of a free human personality. Under communism, labor is transformed from a means of livelihood into a first vital need, and the development of the individual becomes the highest goal of society. Therefore, Marx called communism real, practical G. (see K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, 1956, p. 637). The opponents of communism deny the humanist character of Marxism on the grounds that it is based on materialism and includes the theory of class struggle. This criticism is untenable, because materialism, recognizing the value of earthly life, orients towards its transformation in the interests of man, and the Marxist theory of the class struggle as an irreplaceable means of solving social problems during the transition to socialism is by no means an apology for violence. It justifies the forced use of revolutionary violence to suppress the resistance of the minority in the interests of the majority, in those conditions when it becomes impossible to solve urgent social problems without it. The Marxist worldview is revolutionary-critical and humanistic at the same time. The ideas of Marxist G. were further concretized in the works of V.I.Lenin, who studied a new era in the development of capitalism, the revolutionary processes of this era, and also the beginning of the era of transition from capitalism to socialism, when these ideas began to be practically implemented.
Socialist G. is opposed to abstract G., which preaches "humanity in general," independent of the struggle for the actual liberation of man from all types of exploitation. But within the framework of the ideas of abstract G., two main tendencies can be distinguished. On the one hand, the ideas of abstract G. are used to mask the antihumanist character of modern capitalism, to criticize socialism, to fight the communist worldview, to falsify socialist G. On the other hand, in bourgeois society there are strata and groups that take the positions of abstract G. but are critical of capitalism, advocate peace and democracy, and are concerned about the future of humanity. The two world wars unleashed by imperialism, the misanthropic theory and practice of fascism, which openly trampled the principles of Germany, the continuing rampant racism, militarism, the arms race, and the nuclear threat hanging over the world pose very acute problems to humankind. People who act from the standpoint of abstract Germany against imperialism. and the social evil it generates, are to a certain extent allies of revolutionary socialist Germany in the struggle for real human happiness.
The principles of Marxist, socialist geography are perverted by the right and "left" revisionists. Both of them essentially identify socialist G. with abstract G. But while the former see in abstract humanistic principles the essence of Marxism in general, the latter reject any G. as a bourgeois concept. In fact, life proves the correctness of the principles of socialist Germany. With the victory of socialism, first in the USSR and then in other countries of the socialist community, the ideas of Marxist Germany received real practical reinforcement in the humanistic achievements of the new social system, which chose the humanistic principle as the motto of its further development: “Everything in the name of man, for the good of man. "
Lit .: K. Marx, Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, M., 1956; K. Marx, Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law. Introduction, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch. , 2nd ed. , t. 1; K. Marx and F. Engels, Communist Manifesto, ibid., Vol. 4: F. Engels, Development of socialism from utopia to science, ibid., Vol. 19: V. I. Lenin, State and revolution, ch. 5, Poly. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 33; him, Tasks of youth unions, ibid., v. 41; Program of the CPSU (Adopted by the XXII Congress of the CPSU), Moscow, 1969; Overcoming the personality cult and its consequences. Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Moscow, 1956; Gramshi A., Prison notebooks, Izbr. Prod., vol. 3, trans. from ital., M., 1959; Volgin V.P., Humanism and Socialism, M., 1955; Fedoseev P. N., Socialism and humanism, M., 1958; Petrosyan M.I., Humanism, M., 1964; P.K. Kurochkin, Orthodoxy and humanism, M., 1962; The construction of communism and the spiritual world of man, M., 1966; Konrad N.I., West and East, M., 1966; From Erasmus of Rotterdam to Bertrand Russell. Sat. Art., M., 1969: Ilyenkov E. V., On idols and ideals, M., 1968: Kurella A., Svoe and stranger, M., 1970; Simonyan E.A., Communism is real humanism, M., 1970.
W. J. Kelle. Humanism.
Utopias have fallen under the pressure of world waves humanism, pacifism, international socialism, international anarchism, etc.
In any case, it was precisely from the second half of the 80s in the English-speaking world that a sharp criticism of traditional American feminism as a manifestation of bourgeois liberalism and humanism by post-structuralist feminist theorists like Toril Moy, Chris Whedon, Rita Felski, etc.
They embarked on a vicious path leading from humanism to animalism, - a path opposite to what Mankind has done, stimulated by the greatest creative acts of the living history of the Universe.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe inner unity of ethics and culture, the requirement to make humanism and the moral development of the personality by the criteria of cultural progress, the defense of the principle of equality of all people on earth without distinction of the color of their skin, adamant anti-militarism and anti-fascism in beliefs and practical activities - all these are features of his appearance that give you reason to characterize Schweitzer as an outstanding moral phenomenon in the life of a bourgeois society in an era of deep crisis of its culture.
In the fear of popular movements, in the lack of understanding of their progressive antifeudal orientation, the historical limitations were reflected humanism as a fundamentally bourgeois educational movement.
Lieutenant Baranovsky with his search for justice, the unresolved illusions of the abstract bourgeois humanism fell victim to his own contradictions, found himself under the wheels of an inexorable history.
About the facts of the soullessness of the Caterpillar, I wrote a report three times and was beaten three times for my humanism.
If humanism - so with forgiveness, if justice - then instantly, immediately and to everyone.
And there was a vague humanism and the dreamy vanity of Tsar Alexander, the shocked Habsburgs from Austria, the angry Hohenzollerns from Prussia, the aristocratic traditions of Britain, still trembling with fear of revolution, whose conscience was the slave labor of children in factories and the right to vote stolen from ordinary people.
In full accordance with the ideas of the romantic humanism Hawthorne saw in the individual consciousness a source of social evil and, at the same time, a tool for overcoming it.
This is what your policy has led, '' shouted Dessalin, `` this is the result of your humanism.
Declaring and affirming principles humanism, high morality and morality, singing and poeticizing nature, Fiedler said with good reason that he was trying to be faithful in his work to the traditions of Henryk Sienkiewicz and Stefan eromski - Polish classics close to him in spirit.
Despite the fact that more recently humanism was catastrophically devalued by National Socialism, Heidegger now set out to sharply raise its current price.
Hating wars and politics, Deira did not force Kai to change her beliefs and, together with her, devote herself to serving the ideals humanism.
The concept of "humanism" was introduced into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes an ideology directed towards a person. In the Middle Ages, there was a religious and feudal ideology. Scholasticism prevailed in philosophy. The medieval trend of thought belittled the role of man in nature, representing God as the highest ideal. The Church instilled fear of God, called for humility, obedience, inspired the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman helplessness and insignificance. Humanists began to view a person differently, heightened the role of himself, and the role of his mind and creativity.
In the Renaissance, there was a departure from the feudal-church ideology, the ideas of emancipation of the individual, the assertion of the high dignity of man as a free creator of earthly happiness, appeared. Ideas became decisive in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, and were reflected in politics. Humanism is a secular worldview, anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic. The development of humanism begins in the XIV century, in the work of humanists, as great: Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; and little-known ones: Pico della Mirandola and others. In the 16th century, the development of a new worldview slows down due to the impact of the feudal-Catholic reaction. It is being replaced by the Reformation.
Renaissance literature in general
Speaking about the Renaissance, we are talking directly about Italy, as the bearer of the main part of ancient culture, and about the so-called Northern Renaissance, which took place in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.
The above-mentioned humanistic ideals are characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called so, "Renaissance realism" (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist.
In the works of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes, a new understanding of life is expressed by a person who rejects the slavish obedience that the church preaches. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the wealth of his soul and mind. The realism of the Renaissance is characterized by the scale of images (Hamlet, King Lear), the poeticization of the image, the ability to feel great and, at the same time, the high intensity of the tragic conflict (Romeo and Juliet), reflecting the collision of a person with forces hostile to him.
Various genres are characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular genre was the short story, which is called renaissance short story... In poetry, it becomes the most characteristic form of sonnet (stanza of 14 lines with a certain rhyme). Dramatic art is developing greatly. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.
Publicism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works, creates his new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("Praise of folly") are also widely known.
Among the writers of that time, there are also crowned persons. The poems are written by Duke Lorenzo Medici, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection "Heptameron".
The true founder of the Renaissance in literature is considered to be the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), who truly revealed the essence of the people of that time in his work called "Comedy", which would later be called "Divine Comedy". With this name, the descendants showed their admiration for the grandiose creation of Dante. In the literature of the Renaissance, the humanistic ideals of the era, the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality, were most fully expressed. The love sonnets of Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) revealed the depth of a person's inner world, the richness of his emotional life. In the XIV-XVI century, Italian literature flourished - the lyrics of Petrarch, the novellas by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the political treatises of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the poems of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) put it forward among the "classical" (along with the ancient Greek and ancient Roman) literature for other countries.
Renaissance literature was based on two traditions: folk poetry and "book" antique literature, therefore, the rational principle was often combined with poetic fiction, and comic genres became very popular. This manifested itself in the most significant literary monuments era: "Decameron" by Boccaccio, "Don Quixote" by Cervantes, and "Gargantua and Pantagruele" by Francois Rabelais. The emergence of national literatures is associated with the Renaissance, in contrast to the literature of the Middle Ages, which was created mainly in Latin. Theater and drama became widespread. The most famous playwrights of this time were William Shakespeare (1564-1616, England) and Lope de Vega (1562-1635, Spain)
23. ITALY (turn of XIII-XIV centuries),
Features:
1. The most early, main and "Exemplary" option European Renaissance, which influenced the rest of the national models (especially the French)
2. The greatest manifold, the solidity and complexity of art forms, creative individuals
3. The earliest crisis and transformation in the art of the Renaissance. The emergence is fundamentally new, subsequently defining the New time of forms, styles, trends (the emergence and development in the 2nd half of the 16th century of Mannerism, the basic norms of classicism, etc.)
4. The most striking forms in literature - poetic: from small forms (for example, a sonnet) - to large (genre of a poem);
development dramas, small prose ( short story),
genres " scholarly literature"(Treatise).
The periodization of the Italian Renaissance:
Pre-revival in Italy - the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries.
Humanism - (from Lat.humanitas - humanity, humanus - humane) - 1) a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of \u200b\u200ba person, concern for his rights to, freedom, equality, personal development (and so on); 2) an ethical position, which implies care for a person and his welfare as the highest value; 3) the system of social structure, within which the life and good of a person is recognized as the highest value (example: the Renaissance is often called the era of Humanism); 4) philanthropy, humanity, respect for a person, etc.
Humanism took shape in Western Europe during the Renaissance, in contrast to the Catholic ideology of asceticism that preceded it, which affirmed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe insignificance of human needs in front of the requirements of the Divine nature, fostered contempt for "mortal goods" and "carnal pleasures."
The parents of humanism, being Christians, did not put man at the head of the universe, but only reminded of his interests as a godlike person, denounced contemporary society for sins against humanity (love for man). In their treatises, they argued that the Christian teaching in their modern society did not extend to the fullness of human nature, that disrespect, lies, theft, envy and hatred towards a person are: neglect of his education, health, creativity, the right to choose a spouse, profession , lifestyle, country of residence, and more.
Humanism did not become an ethical, philosophical or theological system (see about this in the article Humanism, or Renaissance Philosophical Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron), but, despite its theological doubtfulness and philosophical vagueness, at present the most conservative Christians also use its fruits. And, on the contrary, few of the most "right-wing" Christians are not horrified by the attitude towards the human person, which is accepted in communities where reverence for the One is combined with a lack of humanism.
However, over time, a substitution took place in the humanistic worldview: God was no longer perceived as the center of the universe, and man became the center of the universe. Thus, in accordance with what humanism considers its system-forming center, we can talk about two types of humanism. Primordial - theistic humanism (John Reuchlin, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Ulrich von Guten, etc.), which affirms the possibility and necessity of God's providence for the world and man. “In this case, God is not only transcendental to the world, but also immanent to it,” so God for man is in this case the center of the universe.
In the widespread deistic humanistic worldview (Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire), God is completely “transcendental to man, that is, absolutely incomprehensible and inaccessible to him ", therefore man becomes the center of the universe for himself, and God is only" taken into account. "
Today, the vast majority of humanitarian workers believe that humanism autonomous, because his ideas cannot be derived from religious, historical or ideological premises, entirely depends on the accumulated human experience in the implementation of intercultural norms of living together: cooperation, benevolence, honesty, loyalty and tolerance towards others, adherence to the law, etc. Therefore, humanism universal,that is, it is applicable to all people and any social systems, which is reflected in the right of all people to life, love, education, moral and intellectual freedom, etc. In fact, this opinion affirms the identity of the modern concept of "humanism" with the concept of "natural moral law", used in Christian theology (see hereinafter “Pedagogical proof ...”). The Christian concept of "natural moral law" differs from the generally accepted concept of "humanism" only in its supposed nature, that is, in the fact that humanism is considered a socially conditioned phenomenon, generated by social experience, and the natural moral law is considered to be a desire for order and everything that was originally embedded in the soul of every person. good. Since, from the Christian point of view, the insufficiency of the natural moral law for achieving the Christian norm of human morality is obvious, the insufficiency of "humanism" as the basis of the humanitarian sphere, that is, the sphere of human relations and human existence, is also obvious.
The following fact confirms the abstract nature of the concept of humanism. Since natural morality and the concept of love for a person are inherent, in one manifestation or another, to any human community, then the concept of humanism is adopted by almost all existing ideological doctrines, due to which there are, for example, concepts such as socialist, communist, nationalist , Islamic, atheistic, integral, etc. humanisms.
In essence, humanism can be called that part of any teaching that teaches to love a person in accordance with the understanding of this ideology of love for a person and the methods of achieving it.
Notes:
The 19th century is usually called the century of humanism in literature. The directions that literature chose in its development reflected those public sentiments that were inherent in people in this time period.
What characterized the turn of the XIX and XX centuries
First of all, this is due to the various historical events that were full of this revolution in world history century. But many writers who began their work at the end of the 19th century were revealed only at the beginning of the 20th century, and their works were inherent in the mood of two centuries.
At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. many brilliant, memorable Russian poets and writers arose, and many of them continued the humanistic traditions of the last century, and many tried to transform them in accordance with the reality that belonged to the 20th century.
Revolutions and civil wars completely changed the consciousness of people, and it is natural that this significantly influenced Russian culture. But the mentality and spirituality of the people cannot be changed by any cataclysms, therefore morality and humanistic traditions began to unfold in Russian literature from the other side.
Writers were forced to raise the theme of humanism in his works, since the amount of violence that the Russian people experienced was flagrantly unfair, it was impossible to be indifferent to this. In the humanism of the new century, other ideological and moral aspects appear that were not and could not be raised by the writers of the past centuries.
New aspects of humanism in 20th century literature
The civil war, which forced family members to fight against each other, was saturated with such cruel and violent motives that the theme of humanism was closely intertwined with the theme of violence. The humanistic traditions of the 19th century are reflections on what is the place of a true person in the whirlpool of life events, which is more important: a person or society?
The tragedy with which the writers of the 19th century (Gogol, Tolstoy, Kuprin) described the self-consciousness of people is more internal than external. Humanism declares itself from the inner side of the human world, and the mood of the 20th century is more associated with war and revolution, which changes the thinking of the Russian people in an instant.
The beginning of the 20th century is called the "Silver Age" in Russian literature, this creative wave brought a different artistic view of the world and man, and a certain realization of the aesthetic ideal in reality. Symbolists reveal a more subtle, spiritual nature of man, which stands above political upheavals, the thirst for power or salvation, above the ideals that the literary process of the 19th century presents to us.
The concept of “the creativity of life” appears, and many symbolists and futurists, such as Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky, reveal this theme. Religion begins to play a completely different role in their work, its motives are revealed in a deeper and more mystical way, slightly different concepts of "male" and "female" beginnings appear.
The concept of "humanism" was introduced into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes an ideology directed towards a person. In the Middle Ages, there was a religious and feudal ideology. Scholasticism prevailed in philosophy. The medieval trend of thought belittled the role of man in nature, representing God as the highest ideal. The Church instilled fear of God, called for humility, obedience, inspired the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman helplessness and insignificance. Humanists began to view a person differently, heightened the role of himself, and the role of his mind and creativity.
In the Renaissance, there was a departure from the feudal-church ideology, the ideas of emancipation of the individual, the assertion of the high dignity of man as a free creator of earthly happiness, appeared. Ideas became decisive in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, and were reflected in politics. Humanism is a secular worldview, anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic. The development of humanism begins in the XIV century, in the work of humanists, as great: Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; and little-known ones: Pico della Mirandola and others. In the 16th century, the development of a new worldview slows down due to the impact of the feudal-Catholic reaction. It is being replaced by the Reformation.
Renaissance literature in general
Speaking about the Renaissance, we are talking directly about Italy, as the bearer of the main part of ancient culture, and about the so-called Northern Renaissance, which took place in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.
The above-mentioned humanistic ideals are characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called so, "Renaissance realism" (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist.
In the works of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes, a new understanding of life is expressed by a person who rejects the slavish obedience that the church preaches. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the wealth of his soul and mind. The realism of the Renaissance is characterized by the scale of images (Hamlet, King Lear), the poeticization of the image, the ability to feel great and, at the same time, the high intensity of the tragic conflict (Romeo and Juliet), reflecting the collision of a person with forces hostile to him.
Various genres are characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular genre was the short story, which is called renaissance short story... In poetry, it becomes the most characteristic form of sonnet (stanza of 14 lines with a certain rhyme). Dramatic art is developing greatly. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.
Publicism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works, creates his new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("Praise of folly") are also widely known.
Among the writers of that time, there are also crowned persons. The poems are written by Duke Lorenzo Medici, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection "Heptameron".
The true founder of the Renaissance in literature is considered to be the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), who truly revealed the essence of the people of that time in his work called "Comedy", which would later be called "Divine Comedy". With this name, the descendants showed their admiration for the grandiose creation of Dante. In the literature of the Renaissance, the humanistic ideals of the era, the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality, were most fully expressed. The love sonnets of Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) revealed the depth of a person's inner world, the richness of his emotional life. In the XIV-XVI century, Italian literature flourished - the lyrics of Petrarch, the novellas by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the political treatises of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the poems of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) put it forward among the "classical" (along with the ancient Greek and ancient Roman) literature for other countries.
Renaissance literature was based on two traditions: folk poetry and "book" antique literature, therefore, the rational principle was often combined with poetic fiction, and comic genres became very popular. This was manifested in the most significant literary monuments of the era: "Decameron" by Boccaccio, "Don Quixote" by Cervantes, and "Gargantua and Pantagruela" by Francois Rabelais. The emergence of national literatures is associated with the Renaissance, in contrast to the literature of the Middle Ages, which was created mainly in Latin. Theater and drama became widespread. The most famous playwrights of this time were William Shakespeare (1564-1616, England) and Lope de Vega (1562-1635, Spain)
23. ITALY (turn of XIII-XIV centuries),
Features:
1. The most early, main and "Exemplary" option European Renaissance, which influenced the rest of the national models (especially the French)
2. The greatest manifold, the solidity and complexity of art forms, creative individuals
3. The earliest crisis and transformation in the art of the Renaissance. The emergence is fundamentally new, subsequently defining the New time of forms, styles, trends (the emergence and development in the 2nd half of the 16th century of Mannerism, the basic norms of classicism, etc.)
4. The most striking forms in literature - poetic: from small forms (for example, a sonnet) - to large (genre of a poem);
development dramas, small prose ( short story),
genres " scholarly literature"(Treatise).
The periodization of the Italian Renaissance:
Pre-revival in Italy - the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries.
Literature and Library Science
Questions of humanism - respect for a person - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These issues were especially acute in extreme situations for mankind, and above all during the civil war, when a grand clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction.
Federal Agency for Railway Transport
Siberian State Transport University
Department "_________________________________________________"
(department name)
"The problem of humanism in literature"
on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.
In the discipline "Culturology"
Head Developed
d ocent student group D-112
Bystrova A.N. ___________ Khodchenko S.D.
(signature) (signature)
_______________ ______________
(check date) (check date)
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Introduction ………………………………………………………… |
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The concept of humanism ……………………………………………… |
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Humanism of Pisemsky (on the example of the novel "The Rich Bridegroom" |
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The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk" ……………………………………………. |
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The problem of humanism in the novel "Impatience of the Heart" by S. Zweig ………………………………………………………… .. |
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Conclusion …………………………………………………… .. |
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List of references……………………………………………. |
Introduction
Questions of humanism - respect for a person - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These issues were especially acute in extreme situations for mankind, and above all during the civil war, when a grand clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of the time, the problem of identifying priorities, the choice between one's own life and the lives of others, is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the abstract the author will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.
Abstract topic - "The problem of humanism in literature."
The theme of humanism is eternal in literature. Artists of the word of all times and peoples turned to her. They did not just show sketches of life, but tried to understand the circumstances that prompted a person to take one or another action. The issues raised by the author are varied and complex. They cannot be answered simply, in monosyllables. They require constant reflection and search for an answer.
As a hypothesis the position was adopted that the solution to the problem of humanism in literature is determined by the historical era (the time of creation of the work) and the worldview of the author.
Objective: identification of the peculiarities of the problem of humanism in domestic and foreign literature.
1) consider the definition of "humanism" in the reference literature;
2) to reveal the peculiarities of solving the problem of humanism in literature on the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.
1. The concept of humanism
A person engaged in science encounters terms that are generally understood and commonly used for all fields of knowledge and for all languages. The concept of "humanism" also belongs to them. According to AF Losev's precise remark, "this term turned out to have a very deplorable fate, which was, incidentally, of all other too popular terms, namely, the fate of enormous uncertainty, ambiguity and often even banal superficiality." The etymological nature of the term "humanism" is dual, that is, it goes back to two Latin words: humus - soil, earth; humanitas - humanity. In other words, even the origin of the term is ambiguous and carries a charge of two elements: the earthly, material element and the element of human relationships.
To move further in the study of the problem of humanism, let us turn to dictionaries. Here is how the explanatory "Dictionary of the Russian language" by SI Ozhegov interprets the meaning of this word: “1. Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people. 2. Progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of man from the ideological stagnation of feudalism and Catholicism. " 2 And here is how the Big Dictionary of Foreign Words defines the meaning of the word “humanism”: “Humanism is a worldview imbued with love for people, respect for human dignity, concern for the welfare of people; humanism of the Renaissance (Renaissance, 14-16th centuries) - a social and literary movement that reflected the worldview of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its ideology (Catholicism, scholasticism), against the feudal enslavement of the individual and striving for the revival of the ancient ideal of beauty and humanity. "3
In the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" edited by A. Prokhorov, the following interpretation of the term humanism is given: "the recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the human welfare as a criterion for assessing social relations." 4 In other words, the compilers of this dictionary recognize the following as essential qualities of humanism: the value of a person, the assertion of his rights to freedom, to the possession of material goods.
"Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary" by E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko calls humanism "reflective anthropocentrism, which proceeds from human consciousness and has as its object the value of a person, except that it alienates a person from himself , subordinating it to superhuman forces and truths, or using it for purposes unworthy of man. " five
Turning to the dictionaries, one cannot fail to notice that each of them gives a new definition of humanism, expanding its polysemy.
2. Humanism of Pisemsky (on the example of the novel "The Rich Bridegroom")
The Rich Bridegroom was a huge success. This is a work from the life of a noble-bureaucratic province. The hero of the work, Shamilov, who aspires to a higher philosophical education, always fiddles with books that he is not able to overcome, with articles that are just beginning, with vain hopes of passing the candidate exam sometime, ruins the girl with his trashy spinelessness, then, as in what has never happened when he married a wealthy widow for convenience, and ends up with the pitiful role of a husband living on the support and under the shoe of an angry and capricious woman. People of this type are not at all to blame for the fact that they do not act in life, they are not to blame for the fact that they are useless people; but they are harmful in that they carry away with their phrases those inexperienced creatures who are seduced by their outward showiness; having carried them away, they do not satisfy their requirements; having increased their sensitivity, the ability to suffer, they do nothing to alleviate their suffering; in a word, these are swamp lights that lead them into the slums and go out when the unfortunate traveler needs light to discern his predicament. In words, these people are capable of feats, sacrifices, heroism; so at least every ordinary mortal will think when listening to their talk about a person, about a citizen and other similar abstract and lofty subjects. In fact, these flabby creatures, constantly evaporating into phrases, are not capable of either a decisive step or hard work.
Young Dobrolyubov writes in his diary in 1853: reading "The Rich Bridegroom" "awakened and defined for me the thought that had long been dormant in me and vaguely understood by me about the need for labor, and showed all the disgrace, emptiness and unhappiness of the Shamilovs. I thanked Pisemsky from the bottom of my heart. " 6
Let us consider in more detail the image of Shamilov. He spent three years at the university, hung out, listened to lectures on various subjects as incoherently and aimlessly as a child listens to the tales of an old nanny, left the university, went home, to the provinces, and said there that “I intend to take the exam for an academic degree and I came to the province to do science more conveniently. " Instead of reading seriously and consistently, he indulged himself in journal articles and immediately after reading an article, he set out on independent work; he will decide to write an article about Hamlet, then he will make a plan for a drama from Greek life; will write ten lines and throw; but he talks about his works to anyone who only agrees to listen to him. His tales interest a young girl, who in her development stands above the district society; finding in this girl a zealous listener, Shamilov draws closer to her and, having nothing to do, imagines himself to be madly in love; as for the girl, she, like a pure soul, falls in love with him in the most conscientious way and, acting boldly, out of love for him overcomes the resistance of her relatives; an engagement takes place on the condition that Shamilov receive a candidate's degree before the wedding and decide on the service. Therefore, there is a need to work, but the hero does not master a single book and begins to say: “I don’t want to study, I want to get married” 6 ... Unfortunately, he doesn't say this phrase so easily. He begins to accuse his loving bride of being cold, calls her a northern woman, complains about his fate; pretends to be passionate and fiery, comes to the bride drunk and, out of drunken eyes, is completely inappropriate and very ill-graciously embraces her. All these things are done partly out of boredom, partly because Shamilov is terribly reluctant to study for the exam; to get around this condition, he is ready to go on bread to the uncle of his bride and even to beg through the bride a secured piece of bread from an old nobleman, a former friend of her late father. All these nasty things are covered with a mantle of passionate love, which seems to darken Shamilov's reason; the implementation of these nastiness is hindered by circumstances and the firm will of an honest girl. Shamilov also arranges scenes, demands that the bride give herself to him before marriage, but she is so smart that she sees his childishness and keeps him at a respectful distance. Seeing a serious rebuff, the hero complains about his bride to a young widow and, probably to console himself, begins to declare his love to her. Meanwhile, the relationship with the bride is maintained; Shamilov is sent to Moscow to take an exam for a candidate;
6 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom", text after ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, from 95
Shamilov does not hold an exam; does not write to the bride and, finally, manages to assure himself without much difficulty that his bride does not understand him, does not love him and is not worth it. The bride dies of various shocks in consumption, and Shamilov chooses the good part, that is, marries the young widow who comforted him; it turns out to be very convenient, because this widow has a wealthy fortune. The young Shamilovs come to the city in which the whole action of the story took place; Shamilov is given a letter written to him by his deceased bride the day before his death, and about this letter the following scene occurs between our hero and his wife, worthily completing his cursory description:
“Show me the letter your friend gave you,” she began.
- What letter? Shamilov asked with mock surprise, sitting down by the window.
- Do not shut yourself up: I heard everything ... Do you understand what you are doing?
- What am I doing?
- Nothing: you only accept letters from your former friends from the person who himself was previously interested in me, and then tell him that you are now being punished - by whom? let me ask you. By me, probably? How noble and how clever! You are also considered an intelligent person; but where is your mind? what does it consist of, tell me, please? .. Show the letter!
- It is written to me, not to you; I'm not interested in your correspondence.
- I did not have and do not have any correspondence with anyone ... I will not allow you to play with me, Pyotr Alexandritch ... We were mistaken, we did not understand each other.
Shamilov was silent.
"Give me the letter, or go wherever you want now," Katerina Petrovna repeated.
- Take it. Do you really think that I attach any particular interest to him? - Said Shamilov with a sneer. And, leaving the letter on the table, he left. Katerina Petrovna began to read it with remarks. "I am writing this letter to you for the last time in my life ..."
- A sad start!
“I am not angry with you; you have forgotten your vows, you have forgotten the relationship that I, mad, considered inseparable. "
“Tell me what an inexperienced innocence! "Before me now ..."
- Boring! .. Annushka! ..
The maid came.
- Go, give this letter to the master and tell him that I advise him to make a medallion for him and keep it on his chest.
The maid left and, returning, reported to the lady:
- Pyotr Alexandritch was ordered to say that they will take care of him without your advice.
In the evening Shamilov went to Karelin's, stayed with him until midnight and, returning home, read Vera's letter several times, sighed and tore it up. The next day he asked his wife for forgiveness all morning 7.
As we can see, the problem of humanism is considered here from the position of relations between people, the responsibility of each for their actions. And the hero is a man of his time, of his era. And he is what society has made him. And this point of view echoes the position of S. Zweig in the novel "Impatience of the Heart."
7 A.F. Pisemsky "The Rich Bridegroom", text after ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, from 203
3. The problem of humanism in the novel "Impatience of the Heart" by S. Zweig
The well-known Austrian novelist Franz Werfel very correctly pointed out the organic connection between Zweig's worldview and the ideology of bourgeois liberalism in his article "The Death of Stefan Zweig", who accurately described the social environment from which Zweig emerged as a man and an artist. "It was the world of liberal optimism, which with superstitious naivete believed in the self-contained value of man, and in essence, in the self-sufficient value of a tiny educated stratum of the bourgeoisie, in its sacred rights, the eternity of its existence, in its straightforward progress. The established order of things seemed to him protected and This humanistic optimism was the religion of Stefan Zweig, and he inherited the illusions of security from his ancestors. artist and psychologist. But above him shone the cloudless sky of his youth, which he worshiped - the sky of literature, art, the only sky that liberal optimism appreciated and knew. Obviously, the darkening of this spiritual sky was a blow for Zweig that he could not bear. .. "
Zweig's humanism already at the beginning of the artist's career acquired features of contemplation, and criticism of bourgeois reality took on a conditional, abstracted form, since Zweig did not oppose concrete and quite visible ulcers and diseases of capitalist society, but against the "eternal" Evil in the name of "eternal" Justice ...
The thirties for Zweig are years of severe spiritual crisis, inner turmoil and growing loneliness. However, the pressure of life pushed the writer in search of a solution to the ideological crisis and forced him to reconsider the ideas that underlie his humanistic principles.
Written in 1939, his first and only novel "Impatience of the Heart" also did not resolve the doubts that tormented the writer, although it contained Zweig's attempt to rethink the question of a person's life duty.
The novel is set in a small provincial town in the former Austria-Hungary on the eve of the First World War. His hero, a young lieutenant Hoffmiller, meets the daughter of a local rich man, Kekesfalva, who falls in love with him. Edith Kekesfalva is ill: her legs are paralyzed. Gofmiller is an honest person, he treats her with friendly sympathy and only out of compassion pretends to share her feelings. Not finding the courage to tell Edith directly that he does not love her, Hoffmiller gradually gets confused, agrees to marry her, but after a decisive explanation, he runs from the city. Abandoned by him, Edith commits suicide, and Hoffmiller, unwittingly, essentially becomes her killer. This is the plot of the novel. Its philosophical meaning is revealed in Zweig's reasoning about two types of compassion. One - cowardly, based on simple pity for the misfortunes of others, Zweig calls "impatience of the heart." It hides the instinctive desire of a person to protect his peace and well-being and to brush aside real help to the suffering and suffering. The other is courageous, open compassion, not afraid of the truth of life, whatever it may be, and which aims to provide real help to a person. Zweig, denying with his novel the futility of sentimental "impatience of the heart", tries to overcome the contemplation of his humanism and give it an effective character. But the writer's trouble was that he did not revise the fundamental foundations of his worldview and turned to an individual person, not wanting or not being able to understand that true humanism requires not only moral re-education of a person, but a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which will result from a collective act and creativity of the masses.
Despite the fact that the main plot of the novel "Impatience of the Heart" is based on a personal, private drama, as it were, taken out of the sphere of generally significant and important social conflicts, it was chosen by the writer in order to determine what should be the social behavior of a person 7 8.
The meaning of the tragedy was interpreted by Dr. Condor, who explained to Hoffmiller the nature of his behavior towards Edith: “There are two kinds of compassion. One faint-hearted and sentimental, it, in essence, is nothing but the impatience of the heart, hurrying to quickly get rid of the painful sensation at the sight of someone else's misfortune; it is not compassion, but only an instinctive desire to protect your peace from the suffering of your neighbor. But there is another compassion - true, which requires action, not sentimentality, it knows what it wants, and is full of determination, suffering and compassion, to do everything in human power, and even beyond them. " 9. And the hero himself reassures himself: "What was the significance of one murder, one personal guilt in comparison with thousands of murders, with the world war, with the massive destruction and destruction of human lives, the most monstrous of all that history has known?"9 10
After reading the novel, we can conclude that the norm of a person's personal and social behavior should be effective compassion, requiring practical actions from a person. The conclusion is very important, bringing Zweig closer to Gorky's understanding of humanism. True humanism requires not only the moral activity of a person, but also a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which is possible as a result of the social activity of people, their participation in historical creativity.
4. The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (on the example of the story "Obelisk")
Vasily Bykov's stories can be defined as heroic and psychological. In all his works, he portrays the war as a terrible national tragedy. But the war in Bykov's stories is not only a tragedy, but also a test of the spiritual qualities of a person, for in the most intense periods of war all the deepest recesses of the human soul were revealed. V. Bykov's heroes are full of consciousness of moral responsibility to the people for their actions. And often the problem of heroism is solved in Bykov's stories as moral and ethical. Heroism and humanism are seen as a whole. Let's consider this on the example of the story "Obelisk".
The Obelisk was first published in 1972 and immediately sparked a flood of letters that led to a debate in print. It was about the moral side of the deed of the hero of the story, Ales Morozov; one of the participants in the discussion viewed it as a feat, others as a rash decision. The discussion allowed us to penetrate into the very essence of heroism as an ideological and moral concept, allowed us to comprehend the variety of manifestations of the heroic not only during the war years, but also in peacetime.
The story is permeated with the atmosphere of contemplation characteristic of Bykov. The author is strict with himself and his generation, because the feat of the war period for him is the main measure of civic value and modern man.
At first glance, the teacher Ales Ivanovich Moroz did not accomplish the feat. During the war, he did not kill a single fascist. He worked under the invaders, taught the children at school, as before the war. But this is only at first glance. The teacher came to the Nazis when they arrested five of his students and demanded his arrival. This is the feat. True, in the story itself, the author does not give an unambiguous answer to this question. He simply introduces two political positions: Ksendzov and Tkachuk. Ksendzov is just convinced that there was no heroic deed, that the teacher Moroz is not a hero, and that means that his student Pavel Miklashevich, who miraculously escaped in those days of arrests and executions, wasted almost his entire life in order to have the name obelisk over the names of five dead disciples.
The dispute between Ksendzov and the former partisan commissar Tkachuk flared up on the day of the funeral of Miklashevich, who, like Moroz, taught in a rural school and by this alone proved his loyalty to the memory of Ales Ivanovich.
People like Ksendzov have quite reasonable arguments against Frost: after all, he himself, it turns out, went to the German commandant's office and got to open a school. But Commissar Tkachuk knows more: he adhered to the moral side of Moroz's act. "We will not teach - they will fool" 10 11 - this is the principle that is clear to the teacher, which is also clear to Tkachuk, who was sent from the partisan detachment to listen to Moroz's explanations. Both of them learned the truth: the struggle for the souls of adolescents continues during the occupation.
The teacher Moroz waged this struggle until his very last hour. He understood that the promise of the Nazis to free the guys who sabotaged the road, if their teacher appeared, was a lie. But he had no doubts about something else: if he didn’t appear, the enemies would use this fact against him, discredit everything he taught the children.
And he went to certain death. He knew that everyone would be executed - both him and the guys. And such was the moral strength of his feat that Pavlik Miklashevich, the only survivor of these guys, carried the ideas of his teacher through all life's trials. Becoming a teacher, he passed on the Morozov “leaven” to his students. Tkachuk, having learned that one of them Vitka, recently helped to catch the bandit, remarked with satisfaction: “I knew it. Miklashevich knew how to teach. Even that leaven, you can see right away ”11 12.
The story outlines the paths of three generations: Moroz, Miklashevich, Vitka. Each of them is worthy of making its own heroic path, not always clearly visible, not always recognized by everyone.
The writer makes one think about the meaning of heroism and feat that is not like the usual one, helps to delve into the moral origins of the heroic act. Before Moroz, when he was leaving the partisan detachment to the fascist commandant's office, before Miklashevich, when he was seeking the rehabilitation of his teacher, before Vitka, when he rushed to defend the girl, there was a choice. The possibility of formal justification did not suit them. Each of them acted in accordance with the judgment of his own conscience. A person like Ksendzov would most likely prefer to leave.
The controversy waged in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the continuity of heroism, dedication, and true kindness. Describing the general patterns of characters created by V. Bykov, L. Ivanova writes that the hero of his stories "... even in hopeless circumstances ... remains a person for whom the most sacred thing is not to go against his conscience, which dictates the moral maximalism of the actions he performs" 12 13.
Conclusion
By the act of his Frost V. Bykov that the law of conscience is always in force. This law has its own strict claims and its own terms of reference. And if a person, faced with a choice, voluntarily seeks to fulfill what he himself considers an internal duty, he does not care about generally accepted ideas. And the last words of S. Zweig's novel sound like a sentence: "... no guilt can be consigned to oblivion as long as the conscience remembers it." 13 14 It is this position, in my opinion, that unites the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov and S. Zweig, written in different social conditions, about people who are completely different in social and moral terms.
The controversy that is waged in the story "Obelisk" helps to understand the essence of heroism, selflessness, true kindness, and therefore true humanism. The problems of the collision of good and evil, indifference and humanism are always relevant, and it seems to me that the more complicated the moral situation, the stronger the interest in it. Of course, these problems cannot be solved by a single work or even by the entire literature as a whole. Each time it is everyone's personal business. But maybe it will be easier for people to make a choice when they have a moral orientation.
List of references
- Large dictionary of foreign words: - M .: -YUNVES, 1999.
- Bykov, V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories / Preface by I. Dedkov. - M .: Det. lit., 1988.
- Zatonsky, D. Artistic landmarksXX century. - M .: Soviet writer, 1988
- Ivanova, L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979.
- Lazarev, L.I. Vasil Bykov: Essay on creativity. - M .: Art. lit., 1979
- Ozhegov, S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words / p. I. Ozhegov; Under total. Ed. Prof. M.I.Skvortsova. - 24th ed., Rev. - M .: LLC "Publishing house" ONIX 21 century ": LLC" Publishing house "Mir and Education", 2003.
- Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1987. - (The life of people noticed. Ser. Biogr .; Issue 4 (666)).
- Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. - 4th ed. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1989.
- Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. –M .: INFRA-M, 2000.
- Zweig, Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992
- Zweig, Stefan. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M .: Izd. Pravda, 1963.
- Shagalov, A.A. Vasil Bykov. War stories. - M .: Art. lit., 1989.
- Literature A.F. Pisemsky "Rich Bridegroom" / the text is printed from the publication of fiction, Moskava, 1955
2 Ozhegov S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53,000 words / p. I. Ozhegov; Under total. Ed. Prof. M.I.Skvortsova. - 24th ed., Rev. - M .: LLC "Publishing house" ONIX 21 century ": LLC" Publishing house "Mir and Education", 2003. - p. 146
3 Large dictionary of foreign words: - M .: -YUNVES, 1999. - p. 186
4 Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. - 4th ed. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1989. - p. 353
5 Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. –M .: INFRA-M, 2000. - p. 119
6 Plekhanov, S.N. Pisemsky. - M .: Mol. Guard, 1987. - (The life of people noticed. Ser. Biogr .; Issue 4. 0s. 117
7 8 Stefan Zweig. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M .: Izd. "Pravda", 1963. - p. 49
8 9 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992 .-- p. 3165
9 10 Ibid., P. 314
10 11 Bulls V. V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories / Foreword by I. Dedkov. - M .: Det. Lit., 1988 .-- p. 48.
11 12 Ibid, p. 53
12 13 Ivanova L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979, p. 33.
13 14 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992 .-- from 316
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HUMANISM (from Latin humanus - human) is an ideological and ideological trend that arose in European countries during the Renaissance (14th - first half of the 17th century) and became the ideology of the Renaissance. At the center of humanism is a person, the demand for the ideas of humanism is associated with the internal needs of the development of European society. The growing secularization of the life of Europe contributed to the recognition of the value of earthly existence, the awareness of the importance of man as a being not only spiritual, but also bodily, the importance of his physical existence. The destruction of medieval corporate structures in society as a result of shifts in the economy and social life led to the emergence of a new type of personality in the sphere of production, political life, culture, who acted independently and independently, did not rely on familiar connections and moral norms and needed to develop new ones. Hence the interest in man as a person and as an individual, his place in society and in the divine universe.
The ideas and teachings of humanism were developed by people from different social circles (urban, ecclesiastical, feudal) and representing different professions (school teachers and university teachers, secretaries of the papal curia, royal chancellors and chancellors of urban republics and signories). By their existence, they destroyed the medieval corporate principle of organizing public life, they were a new spiritual unity - a humanistic intelligentsia, united by a common goal and objectives. Humanists proclaimed the idea of \u200b\u200bself-affirmation and developed concepts and teachings in which the role of moral improvement, the creative and transformative power of knowledge and culture was high.
Italy became the birthplace of humanism. A feature of its development was polycentrism, the presence in the country of a large number of cities with a level of production, trade and finance, far exceeding the medieval one, with a high level of education. “New people” appeared in the cities - energetic and enterprising figures mainly from the Popolan (trade and craft) environment, who were cramped within the framework of corporations and medieval norms of life and who felt in a new way their connection with the world, society and other people. The new socio-psychological climate in cities found a wider sphere of distribution than the environment that gave rise to it. Humanists were also “new people” who transformed social and psychological impulses into doctrines and theories at a higher theoretical level of consciousness. “New people” were also the rulers-signors, who were established in Italian cities, often descended from ignoble families, from bastards, from condottieri of homeless origin, but interested in establishing a person in society by his deeds, and not by birth. In this environment, the work of humanists was in high demand, as evidenced by the cultural policy of rulers from the Medici, Este, Montefeltro, Gonzaga, Sforza and others.
The ideological and cultural sources of humanism were ancient culture, early Christian heritage and medieval writings; the share of each of these sources in different European countries was different. Unlike Italy, other European countries did not have their own ancient heritage, and therefore the European humanists of these countries, more widely than the Italians, borrowed material from their medieval history. But constant ties with Italy, the training there of humanists from other European countries, translations of ancient texts, book publishing activities contributed to the acquaintance with antiquity in other regions of Europe. The development of the Reformation movement in European countries led to a greater interest in early Christian literature than in Italy (where there was practically no Reformation) and led to the emergence of the "Christian humanism" movement there.
Francesco Petrarca is considered the first humanist. It is associated with the "discovery" of man and the human world. Petrarch issued a sharp criticism of scholasticism, which, in his opinion, was occupied with useless things; he rejected religious metaphysics and proclaimed the primary interest in man. Having formulated the cognition of man as the main task of science and philosophy, he defined in a new way the method of his research: not speculation and logical reasoning, but self-knowledge. On this path, human-oriented sciences (moral philosophy, rhetoric, poetry, history) are important, which help to know the meaning of one's own existence, to become morally superior. By highlighting these disciplines, Petrarch laid the foundations for studia humanitatis - a program of humanistic education, which will be further developed by Koluccio Salutati and which most humanists will follow.
Petrarch, a poet and a philosopher, knew man by himself. His My Secret is an interesting experience of psychological analysis of his own personality with all its contradictions, like his Book of Songs, where the main character is the personality of the poet with his emotional movements and impulses, and his beloved Laura acts as the object of the poet's experiences. Petrarch's correspondence also provides excellent examples of introspection and self-worth. He vividly expressed his interest in man in his historical and biographical work On Outstanding People.
Petrarch saw a person in accordance with the Christian tradition as a contradictory being, he recognized the consequences of original sin (frailty and mortality of a person), in his approach to the body he was influenced by medieval asceticism, negatively perceived passions. But he also positively assessed nature ("mother of all things", "holy mother") and everything natural, and reduced the consequences of original sin to the laws of nature. In his work (On the means against a happy and unhappy fate), he raised a number of fundamentally important ideas (nobility as a person's place in society, determined by his own merits, dignity as a person's high position in the hierarchy of divine creations, etc.), which will be further developed in the future. humanism. Petrarch highly appreciated the importance of intellectual work, showed its features, goals and objectives, the conditions necessary for it, separated people who were engaged in it from those engaged in other matters (in the treatise On Solitary Life). Not liking school affairs, he nevertheless managed to say his word in pedagogy, putting moral education in the foreground in the education system, assessing the teacher's mission primarily as an educator, proposing some methods of education, taking into account the diversity of characters in children, emphasizing the role of self-education, as well as examples and travel.
Petrarch showed interest in ancient culture, was one of the first to search and collect ancient manuscripts, sometimes rewriting them with his own hand. He perceived books as his friends, talked with them and their authors. He wrote to their author (Cicero, Quintilian, Homer, Titus Livy) letters to the past, thereby awakening readers' interest in antiquity in society. 15th century Italian humanists (Poggio Bracciolini and others) continued the work of Petrarch, organizing a wide search for books (in monasteries, city offices), not only Latin, but also Greek. They were followed by Giovanni Aurispa, Guarino da Verona, Francesco Filelfo and others to Byzantium. The collection of Greek books, the value of which was already realized even by Petrarch and Boccaccio, who did not really know the Greek language, entailed the need to study it and invite a Byzantine scholar to Florence and public and ecclesiastical leader Manuel Chrysolorus, who taught in 1396-1399 in Florence. The first translators from Greek came out of his school, the best of whom was Leonardo Bruni, who translated the works of Plato and Aristotle. Interest in Greek culture increased with the move to Italy of the Greeks from Byzantium besieged by the Turks (Theodore Gaza, George of Trebizond, Vissarion, etc.), the arrival of Gemist Plithon at the Ferrara-Florentine Cathedral. Greek and Latin manuscripts were copied and preserved in the libraries that emerged during this period, the largest of which were the papal, the Medici library, Federigo Montefeltro in Urbino, Niccolò Niccoli, Vissarion, who became the cardinal of the Roman church.
Thus, an extensive fund of ancient classics and early Christian authors was created, necessary for the development of humanistic ideas and teachings.
15th century was the heyday of Italian humanism. The humanists of the first half of the century, busy with practical life issues, have not yet revised the foundations of traditional views. The most common philosophical foundation of their ideas was nature, the requirements of which were recommended to be followed. Nature was called divine ("or god", "that is, God"), but the humanists did not have developed ideas of pantheism. Understanding nature as "good" led to the justification of human nature, the recognition of good nature and man himself. This supplanted the idea of \u200b\u200b"sinfulness" of nature and led to a rethinking of ideas about original sin. A person began to be perceived in the unity of soul and body, the contradictory understanding of this unity, characteristic of early humanism, was replaced by the idea of \u200b\u200bharmony. To the high appreciation of the body that appeared in humanism (Lorenzo Valla, Gianozzo Manetti, etc.), a positive perception of the emotional and sensory sphere, departing from asceticism, was added (Salutati, Valla, etc.). Feelings were recognized as necessary for life, knowledge and moral activity. They should not be mortified, but transformed with the help of reason into virtuous actions; to direct them to good deeds with the help of will and reason is a titanic effort, akin to the exploits of Hercules (Salutati).
A radical revision in humanism of the traditional attitude to issues of emotional and volitional life helped to establish the image of a volitional person deeply attached to the world. Thus, a new psychological orientation of a person was set, not medieval in its spirit. The adjustment of the psyche to an active and positive attitude towards the world affected the general feeling of life, the understanding of the meaning of human activity, and ethical teachings. The idea of \u200b\u200blife, death and immortality changed. The value of life (and the value of time) increased, death was perceived sharply, and immortality, a topic that became widely discussed in humanism, was understood as memory and glory on earth and as eternal bliss in paradise with the restoration of the human body. Attempts at a philosophical substantiation of immortality were accompanied by a fantastic description of pictures of heavenly bliss (Bartolomeo Fazio, Valla, Manetti), while the humanistic paradise preserved an integral person, made earthly pleasures more perfect and refined, including intellectual properties (speak all languages, master any science and any art), that is, he continued his earthly life to infinity.
But the main thing for the humanists was the affirmation of the earthly goal of human life. She thought differently. This is the maximum perception of the blessings of the world (Valla's teaching on pleasure) and its creative development (Leon Batista Alberti, Manetti), and civil service (Salutati, Bruni, Matteo Palmieri).
The main sphere of interest of the humanists of this period was questions of practical life behavior, which found their reflection in the development of ethical and related political ideas and teachings by humanists, as well as ideas of education.
The paths of ethical searches for humanists differed depending on the adherence to one or another ancient author and on public inquiries. A civil ideology has developed in the city-republics. Civil humanism (Bruni, Palmieri, Donato Acciuoli, etc.) was an ethical and at the same time a socio-political trend, the main ideas of which were considered the principle of the common good, freedom, justice, legal equality, and the best state system was a republic where all these principles can be carried out in the best way. The criterion of moral behavior in civil humanism was service to the common good, in the spirit of such service to society, a person was brought up, subordinating all his actions and deeds to the good of the fatherland.
If the Aristotelian-Cicero orientation was dominant in civil humanism, then the appeal to Epicurus gave rise to the ethical teachings of Valla, Cosimo Raimondi, and others, in which the principle of personal good was the moral criterion. It was derived from nature, from the natural striving of every person for pleasure and avoidance of suffering, and the striving for pleasure became at the same time striving for one's own benefit; but this desire did not come into conflict with Valla's good and usefulness of other people, because its regulator was right choice more good (and not less), and they turned out to be love, respect, trust of neighbors, more important for a person than the satisfaction of transient personal material interests. Valla's attempts to reconcile Epicurean principles with Christian ones testified to the humanist's desire to root the ideas of individual welfare and pleasure in his contemporary life.
The principles of stoicism that attracted humanists served as the basis for the internal strengthening of the personality, its ability to endure everything and achieve everything. The inner core of the personality was virtue, which served as a moral criterion and reward in Stoicism. Virtue, a very common concept in the ethics of humanism, was interpreted broadly, meaning both a combination of high moral qualities and a good deed.
So ethics discussed the norms of behavior demanded by society, which needed both strong individuals and the protection of their interests, and the protection of civil interests (in the city-republics).
The political ideas of humanism were associated with ethical ones and to a certain extent subordinated to them. In civil humanism, the priority among the forms of government of the republic was based on the better protection of the ideas of the common good, freedom, justice, etc., by this state system. Some humanists (Salutati) offered these principles and the experience of the republic as a guide to action even for monarchs. And among the humanist defenders of autocracy (Giovanni Conversini da Ravenna, Guarino da Verona, Piero Paolo Vergierio, Titus Livy Frulovisi, Giovanni Pontano, etc.), the sovereign appeared as the focus of humanistic virtues. Guiding people in proper behavior, showing what humane states should be like, making their well-being dependent on the personality of a humanistic ruler and on the observance of a number of principles of an ethical and legal nature in the republics, humanism of this time was essentially a great pedagogy.
During this period pedagogical ideas actually flourished and became the most important achievement of the entire Renaissance. Based on the ideas of Quintilian, Pseudo-Plutarch and other ancient thinkers, having assimilated their medieval predecessors, humanists (Vergierio, Bruni, Palmieri, Alberti, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Maffeo Veggio) developed a number of pedagogical principles that, in their totality, represented a single concept. The famous teachers of the Renaissance Vittorino da Feltre, Guarino da Verona and others put these ideas into practice.
Humanistic education was thought to be secular, socially open, it did not pursue professional goals, but teaches “the craft of man” (E. Haren). The individual was brought up diligence, the desire for praise and fame, self-esteem, the desire for self-knowledge and improvement. Brought up in the spirit of humanistic harmony, a person had to receive a versatile education (but based on ancient culture), acquire high moral qualities, physical and mental fortitude and courage. He should be able to choose any business in life and achieve public recognition. The process of education by humanists was understood as voluntary, conscious and joyful; it has been associated with soft hand techniques, the use of encouragement and praise, and the rejection or restriction of corporal punishment. The natural inclinations and characteristics of the character of children were taken into account, with which the methods of upbringing were also conformed. Family was given serious importance in upbringing, the role of “living example” (father, teacher, virtuous person) was highly valued.
Humanists deliberately introduced such an ideal of upbringing into society, affirming the purposeful nature of upbringing, the inextricable link between education and upbringing and the priority of upbringing tasks, subordinating upbringing to social goals.
The logic of the development of humanism, associated with the deepening of its ideological foundations, led to the development in it of questions relating to the relationship to the world and God, understanding of the place of man in the hierarchy of divine creations. Humanism as a worldview, as it were, was being built up to the top, now capturing not only vital and practical spheres (ethical, political, pedagogical), but also questions of an ontological nature. The development of these questions was started by Bartolomeo Fazio and Manetti in their writings, where the topic of human dignity was discussed. In this theme, posed in Christianity, dignity was expressed in the image and likeness of God. Petrarch was the first of the humanists to develop this idea, gave it a secular character, highlighting the mind that allowed a person, despite all the negative consequences of the Fall (weakness of the body, illness, mortality, etc.), to safely arrange his life on earth, conquering and putting animals at his service by inventing things that help him live, to overcome bodily weakness. Manetti went even further, in his treatise On the Dignity and Superiority of Man, he consistently discusses the excellent properties of the human body and its purposeful structure, the high creative properties of his soul (and, above all, rational ability) and the dignity of man as a bodily-mental unity in general. On the basis of a holistic understanding of man, he formulated his main task on earth - to cognize and act, which is his dignity. Manetti's man initially acted as a collaborator of God, who created the earth in its original form, while man cultivated it, decorated it with arable land and cities. Carrying out his task on earth, man through this simultaneously cognizes God. There is no traditional dualism in the treatise: Manetti's world is beautiful, a person acts intelligently in it, making it even better. But the humanist only touched on ontological problems, raising the question of the world and God. He did not engage in revision of the foundations of the traditional worldview.
The humanists of the Florentine Platonic Academy Marsilio Ficino and Pico de la Mirandola approached these questions more radically. Florentine Neoplatonism became the logical development of the previous humanism, which needed a philosophical substantiation of its ideas, built mainly on the old ontology. Dealing now with the problems of the relationship between the world and God, God and man, humanists entered the spheres, hitherto unknown, which were the subject of attention of theologians. With the help of the ideas of Plato, the Neoplatonists, they moved away from the ideas of the creation of the world from nothing and the traditional ideas of dualism (world - matter, God - spirit) and began to interpret general philosophical questions differently. Ficino understood the emergence of the world as an emanation (outflow) of the One (God) into the world, which led to its pantheistic interpretation. Filled with the light of divinity, which gives the world unity and beauty, it is beautiful and harmonious, animated and warmed by the heat that comes from the light - love that permeates the world. Through deification, the world receives the highest justification and exaltation. At the same time, the person who receives his place in this world rises and deifies. Based on the ancient ideas of the microcosm, humanists expressed thoughts about the universality of human nature as a connection to everything created or about his participation in everything created by God. Ficino, in Plato's Theology of the Immortality of the Soul, defined man through the soul and spoke of his divinity, which constitutes the dignity of man and is expressed in his immortality. In Pico's case of Mirandola in the Speech on Human Dignity, universal human nature, which gives him superiority over everything created, serves as the basis for free choice, which constitutes the dignity of man and is his purpose. The free choice, carried out by the free will given to man by God, is the choice of his own nature, place and destination, it occurs with the help of moral and natural philosophy and theology and helps a person to find happiness both in earthly life and after death.
Florentine Neo-Platonism gave man and the world the highest justification, although it lost the sensory perception of the world, a harmonious understanding of man as a bodily-spiritual unity, characteristic of previous humanism. He brought it to its logical conclusion and philosophically substantiated the tendency towards the elevation and justification of man and the world, contained in the previous humanism.
In an effort to reconcile Neo-Platonism and Christianity, Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola developed the idea of \u200b\u200ba "universal religion", from time immemorial inherent in mankind and identical universal wisdom; Christianity was thought of as a particular, although the highest manifestation of it. Such ideas, contrary to the religion of revelation, led to the development of religious tolerance.
Florentine Neoplatonism, whose influence on humanistic and natural-philosophical thought and art of Italy and all of Europe was very strong, did not exhaust all humanistic searches. Humanists (such as Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urcheo (Codr), Galeotto Marzio, Bartolomeo Platina, Giovanni Pontano, etc.) were also interested in the natural consideration of man, who was included by them in the framework of natural laws. In humans, they studied what amenable to natural comprehension - the body and its physiology, bodily properties, health, quality of life, nutrition, etc. Instead of admiration for the infinity of human knowledge, they talked about the difficult path of searching for truth, fraught with mistakes and delusions. The role of extramoral values \u200b\u200b(work and ingenuity, a healthy lifestyle, etc.) has increased; the question of the development of human civilization, the role of labor in the movement of mankind towards a more perfect life was raised (Pandolfo Collenuccio, Pontano). A person was not elevated to heaven, remembering his mortality, while the awareness of the finitude of being led to new assessments of life and death, a weak interest in the life of the soul. There was no heroization of a person, they saw both good and bad sides in life; both man and life were often perceived dialectically. Humanists, especially university ones, focused mainly on Aristotle and considered him as a representative of ancient natural science, showing interest in natural philosophy, medicine, astrology and using the data of these sciences in the study of man.
The variety of humanistic searches shows that humanistic thought tried to cover all spheres of human existence and study them, relying on various ideological sources - Aristotle, Plato, Epicurus, Seneca, etc. In general, Italian humanism of the 15th century. positively assessed a person and his being in the world. A number of humanists (Valla, Manetti, etc.) are characterized by an optimistic outlook on life and man, others looked at him more soberly (Alberti), and although the original qualities of a person were considered excellent, comparing them with the practice of life, they exposed human vices. Still others continued to be influenced by the traditional idea of \u200b\u200bmiseria (the pitiful fate of man in the world), deriving all troubles and misfortunes from it.
16th century turned out to be a time of difficult trials for humanism. The Italian wars, the threat of a Turkish invasion, the movement of trade routes to the West in connection with the fall of Byzantium and the decline in Italy's trade and economic activity affected the moral and psychological climate in the country, reduced its vitality. Deception, betrayal, hypocrisy, self-interest, which spread in society, did not allow composing the old hymns to a person whose life impulses turned out to be lower than previously imagined. At the same time, an increasing inconsistency between reality and humanistic ideals, their utopianism and bookishness, was revealed. Belief in man was questioned, his nature was rethought as absolutely good and a more sober understanding of the essence of man arose, and the departure from abstract lofty ideas was accompanied by an appeal to the experience of life. There was a need to consider the existing order of things, on the basis of a new understanding of man (real, not imaginary), forming and changing under the influence of life practice. Thus, with the help of the new method, the political doctrine of Machiavelli was built, which was at odds with the previous ideas of his humanist predecessors. Machiavelli's ruler is not the embodiment of humanistic virtues, he acts, showing or not showing, depending on the circumstances, good qualities, for his action must be successful (and not virtuous). In powerful rulers, Machiavelli saw a guarantee of ordering public life for the common good.
Traditional ideas and approaches (anthropocentrism, the idea of \u200b\u200bdignity, the good nature of man, etc.) continued to be discussed in humanism in the future, sometimes retaining their attractiveness (Galeazzo Capra, Giambattista Gelli). But from now on, they were not indisputable and were discussed with an appeal to the practice of life, with a desire to give high ideas a concrete and purely earthly expression (discussion by B. Castiglione and G. Capra of the topic of dignity in men and women). These approaches were combined with attempts to move away from the anthropocentric vision of man both with the help of Neoplatonism (rejection of the anthropomorphic understanding of God and the recognition of higher forms of life in space in comparison with human forms of life in the Zodiac of Life by Marcellus Palingenius), and by comparing man with animals and doubts about justice human dimension of values \u200b\u200b(Machiavelli in the Golden Donkey, Jelly in Circe). This meant that humanism was losing its main ideas and positions, its core. In the 16th century. alongside humanism, actively influencing it, science (Leonardo da Vinci, etc.) and natural philosophy (Bernardino Telesio, Pietro Pomponazzi, Giordano Bruno, etc.) are developing, in which topics that were considered humanistic (human problems, ethics, social structure of the world, etc.). Gradually giving way to these areas of knowledge, humanism as an independent phenomenon left the historical scene, turning into philology, archeology, aesthetics, utopian thought.
In other European countries, humanism developed from the end of the 15th century. before the beginning of the 17th century. He was able to perceive a number of ideas of Italian culture, as well as to fruitfully use the ancient heritage discovered by Italians. Life collisions of that time (wars, Reformation, Great geographical discoveries, tension in social life) had a strong influence on the formation of ideas of humanism and its features. The worldview of humanism turned out to be more closely related to the problems of national life, the humanists were worried about the problems of the political unification of the country (Ulrich von Hutten) and the preservation of state unity and strong autocracy (Jean Boden); they began to respond to social problems - poverty, deprivation of producers of the means of production (Thomas More, Juan Luis Vives). Sharply criticizing the Catholic Church and publishing works of early Christian literature, humanists contributed to the preparation of the Reformation .. The influence of Christianity on humanism in the rest of Europe was stronger than in Italy, which led to the formation of "Christian humanism" (John Colette, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More, etc. .). It was an ethical teaching, based on love for one's neighbor and active transformation of society on the basis of the teaching of Christ, and which was not in conflict with the requirements of nature and was not alien to ancient culture.
Humanism was characterized by a critical attitude not only to the Catholic Church, but also to society, social institutions, the state and its policies (More, François Rabelais, Sebastian Brant, Erasmus, etc.); in addition to moral vices - the object of constant humanistic criticism (especially in Germany in the literature about fools), humanists exposed new and hitherto unseen vices that appeared during the period of acute religious struggle and wars, such as fanaticism, intolerance, cruelty, hatred of man, etc. . (Erasmus, Montaigne). It is no coincidence that it was during this period that the ideas of tolerance (Louis Leroy, Montaigne) and pacifism (Erasmus) began to be developed.
Being interested in the development of society, the humanists of that time, in contrast to the early ones, who considered human improvement and moral progress as the basis for the development of society, paid more attention to science and production, considering them to be the main engine of human development (Boden, Leroy, Francis Bacon). Man now acted not so much in his moral quality as in the omnipotence of thought and creation, and in this, along with gains and losses, morality fell out of the sphere of progress.
Underwent changes and outlook on a person. His idealization and exaltation, characteristic of early humanism, disappeared. A person began to be perceived as a complex creature, constantly changing, contradictory (Montaigne, William Shakespeare), the idea of \u200b\u200bthe goodness of human nature was also called into question. Some humanists have tried to view a person through the prism of social relations. Even Machiavelli considered laws, the state and power to be factors capable of curbing the desire of people to satisfy their own interests and ensure their normal life in society. Now More, observing the order in England of his day, raised the question of the influence on a person of public relations and state policy. He believed that by depriving the manufacturer of the means of production, the state thereby forced him to steal, and then sent him to the gallows for stealing, therefore, a thief, a vagabond, a robber for him is a product of a poorly organized state, certain relations in society. Among the Utopians, Mora's fantasy created such social relations that allowed a person to be moral and realize his capabilities, as humanists understood them. In the humanistic spirit, the main task of the state of the Utopians was formulated, providing a person with a happy life: to provide citizens with the greatest amount of time after physical labor ("bodily slavery") for spiritual freedom and education.
So, starting from the person and making him responsible for the structure of social life, humanists came to the state responsible for the person.
Including man in society, humanists even more actively included him in nature, which was promoted by natural philosophy and Florentine Neoplatonism. The French humanist Charles de Beauvel called man the consciousness of the world; the world looks into his mind, in order to find the meaning of his existence in it, the knowledge of a person is inseparable from the knowledge of the world, and in order to know a person, one must start with the world. And Paracelsus argued that man (microcosm) consists in all its parts of the same elements as the natural world (macrocosm), being part of the macrocosm, he is cognized through him. At the same time, Paracelsus spoke about the power of man, his ability to influence the macrocosm, but human power was affirmed not on the path of the development of science, but on the magical-mystical paths. And although humanists did not develop a method of cognizing man through nature, the inclusion of man in nature led to radical conclusions. Michel Montaigne in his Experiments deeply questioned the idea of \u200b\u200bthe privileged place of man in nature; he did not recognize the subjective, purely human measure, in accordance with which man attributed to animals such qualities as he wanted. Man is not the king of the Universe, he has no advantages over animals, which have the same skills and properties as man. According to Montaigne, in nature, where there is no hierarchy, everyone is equal, man is neither higher nor lower than others. So Montaigne, denying man the high title of the king of the Universe, crushed anthropocentrism. He continued the line of criticism of anthropocentrism, outlined by Machiavelli, Palingenia, Jelly, but did it more consistently and reasoned. His position was comparable to the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and Bruno, who deprived the Earth of a central place in the universe.
Diverging from both Christian anthropocentrism and the humanistic elevation of man to God, Montaigne included man in nature, life in accordance with which does not humiliate man, being, according to the humanist, a truly human life. The ability to live like a human being, simply and naturally, without fanaticism, dogmatism, intolerance and hatred constitutes the true dignity of man. Montaigne's position, which retains the primary interest in man, characteristic of humanism, and at the same time breaks with his exorbitant and inappropriate elevation, including man in nature, turned out to be at the level of problems of both his time and subsequent eras.
Re-evaluating a person, the humanists of the 16th century. keep faith in the power of knowledge, in the high mission of education, in reason. They inherited the most fruitful ideas of the Italian principles of education: the priority of educational tasks, the connection between knowledge and morality, the idea of \u200b\u200bharmonious development. The emerging features in pedagogy were associated both with the new conditions in which they developed humanism, and with the reassessment of man. In humanistic essays on education, there was strong criticism of family education and parents, as well as schools and teachers (Erasmus, Rabelais, Montaigne); thoughts appeared about a school under the control of society to exclude all cases of cruelty and violence against a person (Erasmus, Vives). The main path of upbringing, according to the humanists, lay through training, which was enriched by them with the concept of "play", visualization (Erasmus, Rabelais), observation of natural phenomena and acquaintance with various crafts and arts (Rabelais, Eliot), through communication with people and travel (Montaigne). The understanding of knowledge has expanded, which includes various natural disciplines, the works of the humanists themselves. The ancient languages \u200b\u200bcontinued to be the main instruments of education, but at the same time the knowledge of the Greek language deepened. Some humanists criticized teachers ("pedants") and schools, where the study of the classical heritage became an end in itself and the educational character of education was lost (Montaigne). Interest in the study of the native language (Vives, Eliot, Esham) has grown, some humanists suggested teaching it (More, Montaigne). The specificity of childhood and the peculiarities of child psychology were more deeply comprehended, taking into account which Erasmus, for example, gave an explanation of the game used in learning. Erasmus and Vives talked about the need to improve the education and upbringing of women.
Although humanism of the 16th century. became more mature, and the works of significant humanists (Machiavelli, Montaigne) paved the way in the subsequent era, humanism as a whole, due to the rapid development of production and technical progress, gave way to science and new philosophy. Having fulfilled his mission, he gradually left the historical scene as an integral and independent teaching. There is no doubt about the value of the humanistic experience of a versatile study of man, which for the first time became an independent object of attention of researchers. The approach to a person as a generic being, as a simple person, and not a member of a corporation, not a Christian or pagan, not dependent or free, opened the way in a new time with its ideas about rights and freedoms. Interest in personality and ideas about human capabilities, actively introduced by humanists into the consciousness of people, instilled faith in human creativity and transformative activity and contributed to this. The struggle against scholasticism and the discovery of antiquity, coupled with the education of educated and creatively thinking people in humanistic schools, created the preconditions for the development of science.
Humanism itself gave rise to a number of sciences - ethics, history, archeology, philology and linguistics, aesthetics, political doctrines, etc. Humanism is associated with the emergence of the first intelligentsia as a certain stratum of the population. Self-affirming, the intelligentsia substantiated its significance through high spiritual values \u200b\u200band consciously and purposefully asserting them in life, did not allow the society of starting entrepreneurship and initial accumulation of capital to sink into the abyss of greed and the pursuit of profit.
Nina Revyakina
