ARTISTIC CULTURE 17-18 CENTURIES OF NEW TIME So much news for 20 years And in the sphere of stars, And in the sphere of planets, The universe is crumbling into atoms, All ties are torn, everything is crushed into pieces. The foundations were loose and now Everything has become relative to us. John Donne (1572 -1631) - The synthesis of the arts, that is, the active interaction of its different types - the heights of the plastic arts - the flourishing of musical culture - the golden age of theater
STYLE - a set of artistic means and methods of their use, characteristic of the works of art of an artist, a major art movement or an entire era. The art of the 17th century is inextricably linked with the formation and development of various styles.
The art of a particular era is broader than the range of phenomena called style. If the 17th century is associated with the Baroque style, this does not mean that this style was the only one. Along with the baroque, different styles developed in the 17th century: -maneurism, -rococo-classicism-realism
MANIERISM (it. Manierismo - pretentious), as the Italian artists called the "new beautiful manner", distinguishing between old and new methods of creativity. It's more of a fashion than a big style. The style arose in the middle of the 16th century - Exquisite virtuoso technique - - the overtonedness of images, tension - Supernatural plots - Destruction of the Renaissance harmony and balance
El Greco Domenico Teotokopouli (1541–1614) The first outstanding painter of the Spanish school of painting. painting "Holy Family"
BAROQUE Baroque is a style of European art and architecture of the 17th - 18th centuries, formed in Italy. At different times, different content was put into the term "baroque". At first, he wore an offensive connotation, implying nonsense, absurdity (perhaps it goes back to the Portuguese word for ugly pearl).
Specific features of the Baroque style. 1. Strengthening religious themes, especially those related to martyrdom, miracles, visions; 2. Increased emotionality; 3. The great importance of irrational effects, elements; 4. Bright contrast, emotionality of images; 5. Dynamism (“the world of the baroque is a world in which there is no rest” Bunin); 6. Search for unity in the contradictions of life; 7. In architecture: an oval in the line of the building; architectural ensembles; 8. The sculpture is subordinated to the general decoration
ROCOCO In France, the Rococo style manifested itself brighter than others - from fr. "Rocaille" shell is a style of sophisticated and complex shapes, whimsical lines, intrigues, adventures and holidays, the main purpose of which is to amuse and entertain. ... Sometimes it is considered a kind of Baroque, which abandoned monumentality. Rococo is a style of exclusively secular culture. The style originated among the French aristocracy. The words of Louis XV "After us, even a flood" can be considered a manifesto of style and characterization of the mood of the court circles. Instead of etiquette - a frivolous atmosphere, a thirst for pleasure and fun. The mores of the aristocrats shaped the style with its quirky, fickle capricious forms.
the rococo style developed in the first half of the 18th century. Pomp in those years no longer attracted architects. Art, in accordance with the tastes of the nobility, acquired grace and light cheerfulness. A small mansion immersed in the greenery of a garden, refined and luxurious inside - this is the main image of Rococo architecture. Luxury, combined with the finest, almost jewelry work, characterizes the decoration of the rooms. Motifs of exotic flowers, bizarre masquerade masks, sea shells, fragments of stones - all this is interspersed with intricate patterns covering the walls.
Classicism is a stylistic trend in European art, the most important feature of which was the appeal to ancient art as a standard and reliance on the tradition of the harmonious ideal of the High Renaissance. The theoretician of early classicism was the poet Nicolas Boileau-Depreo (1636 -1711) - “love thought in verse”, that is, emotions obey reason.
It developed at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. The characteristic features of realism are objectivity in the transmission of the visible, accuracy, concreteness, lack of idealization, attention to nature, sincerity of feelings. REALISM
ART CULTURE
17-18 CENTURIES
NEW TIME
So much news in 20 years
And in the sphere of stars
And in the area of \u200b\u200bthe planets,
The universe is crumbling into atoms,
All ties are broken, everything is crushed into pieces.
The foundations are loose and now
Everything has become relative to us
.
John Donne (1572-1631)
-Synthesis of arts, that is, active interaction of its different types
- tops of plastic arts
- the flourishing of musical culture
- the golden age of theater
2.
STYLE is a set of artistic
means and methods of their use,
characteristic of works of art
any artist, major
artistic direction or whole
era.
17th century art is inextricably linked with
formation and development of various
styles.
3.
The art of a particular era is wider than the range of phenomena called
style. If the 17th century is associated with the Baroque style, then this
does not mean that this style was the only one.
Along with the baroque, different styles developed in the 17th century:
-mannerism,
- rococo
- classicism
- realism
4.
MANNERISM
(Italian Manierismo - artsy), so Italian
artists called the "new beautiful
manner ", distinguishing between old and new techniques
creativity. It's more fashion than big
style.
The style originated in the middle of the 16th century
- Exquisite virtuoso technique
- - overcrowdedness of images, tension
- Supernatural plots
- Destruction of the Renaissance harmony and
equilibrium
5.
El Greco
Domenico Teotokopouli
(1541–1614)
The first outstanding
Spanish school artist
painting.
painting
"Holy Family"
6.
"Christ Healing the Blind"
7.
Images of saints
"Apostles Peter and Paul"
8.
9.
Psychological portraits
Portrait of hidalgo
St. Jerome as a Cardinal
10.
Toledo. Alcazar Castle
The only landscape - View of Toledo
11.
BAROQUE
Baroque is a European style
art and architecture XVII - XVIII
centuries, formed in Italy.
At different times in the term "baroque"
different content was invested.
At first, he wore an offensive
shade, implying
nonsense, absurdity (perhaps he
goes back to the Portuguese word,
signifying
ugly pearl).
12.
13.
Specific features of the Baroque style.
Strengthening religious themes, especially those related to
martyrdom, miracles, visions;
2. Increased emotionality;
3. The great importance of irrational effects, elements;
4. Bright contrast, emotionality of images;
5. Dynamism (“the world of the baroque is a world in which there is no rest” Bunin);
6. Search for unity in the contradictions of life;
7. In architecture: an oval in the line of the building; architectural ensembles;
8. The sculpture is subordinated to the general decorative design
14.
15.
ROCOCO
In France,
rococo style - from fr. Rocaille washbasin-style refined and
complex shapes, bizarre lines,
intrigues, adventures and holidays,
whose main purpose is to amuse and
entertain .. Sometimes it is considered
a kind of baroque,
abandoned monumentality.
Rococo - style exclusively
secular culture. The style was born
among the French aristocracy.
Words of Louis XV “After us, though
flood "can be considered a manifesto
style and mood characteristics
court circles. Instead of etiquette -
frivolous atmosphere, thirst
delights and fun. Morals
aristocrats formed a style with
its quirky, fickle
capricious forms.
16.
the Rococo style developed in the first half of the 18th century. Pomp in those
for years it did not attract architects. Art according to the tastes of the nobility
acquired grace and light cheerfulness. Small mansion
drowned in the greenery of the garden, refined and luxurious inside - this is the main
image of rococo architecture. Luxury combined with the finest, almost
the decoration of the rooms is characterized by jewelry work. Exotic motives
flowers, fancy masquerade masks, sea shells, fragments of stones
- all this is interspersed with intricate patterns covering the walls.
17.
CLASSICISM
18.
Classicism is a stylistic trend in European
art, the most important feature of which was the appeal to
antique art as a standard and reliance on traditions
harmonious ideal of the High Renaissance.
The theorist of early classicism was a poet
Nicola Boileau-Depreo (1636-1711)
- "love thought in verse", that is, emotions obey reason.
19.
Developed at the turn
17-18 centuries.
Character traits
realism is
objectivity in
transmission of the visible,
accuracy,
concreteness,
absence
idealization,
attention to nature,
sincerity of feelings.
REALISM
English RussianRules
University of the Russian Academy of Education
Features of Baroque and Classicism.
The main styles in 17th century art.
Completed: 2nd year student
Full-time department
Special culturology
Yakubova K.N.
Teacher: Mareeva N.S.
Moscow 2010
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 3
Characteristics of the culture of the XVII century ………………………………………… 4
2. Baroque as an artistic trend of the 17th century ………………………… ..5
2.1. Preconditions and features of the Baroque ……………………………………….… ..5
2.2. Baroque in architecture ………………………………………………… .6
2.3. Baroque in literature …………………………………………………… .8
2.4. Baroque in painting and sculpture ……………………………………… ..9
3. Classicism as an artistic trend of the 17th century …………………… ..10
3.1. Preconditions and features of classicism ………………………………….… .10
3.2. Classicism in literature ……………………………………… .. …… ..11
3.3. Classicism in architecture and painting ………………………………… 12
3.4. Classicism in sculpture ………………………………………….… .13
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .14
References …………………………………………………………… .15
Introduction
The theme of my test is "Classicism and Baroque in European Culture of the 17th Century: Ideas and Realizations." This topic was chosen for a number of reasons:
First, Baroque and Classicism are two of the broadest and most influential artistic movements of the era in question.
Secondly, these areas are complex and dual in nature, which makes this issue one of the most relevant in cultural knowledge.
Thirdly, Baroque and Classicism represent an outstanding contribution to the world treasury of art, which arouses even greater interest in their knowledge.
The aim of my work is to study such trends in the art of the 17th century as classicism and baroque.
To achieve this goal, I need to solve a number of tasks:
· Consider the general patterns of development of European culture in the XVII century;
· Explore the features of Baroque and Classicism as the main artistic trends of the specified period.
1. Characteristics of the culture of the XVII century
The 17th century - the century of Descartes and Port-Royal, Pascal and Spinoza, Rembrandt and Milton, the century of brave seafarers, migrations to overseas countries, bold trade, the flourishing of natural science, moralizing literature - and ... the age of the wig, which reached its greatest pomp in the 60s, a wig worn by everyone - from the king, the admiral to the merchant.
It is not by chance that the 17th century opens up the period of the New Time: it really was the century of a new man, a new science, a new art.
In Europe, the modern era reveals itself in the formation and strengthening of capitalist tendencies, and in England capitalism is most clearly affirmed in reality. The same time was the period of the first bourgeois revolution, which revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society, and the cruelty of its organizers.
A rationalistic approach to reality stood out and strengthened, reason begins to play the main role in the world. This was expressed, first of all, in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. The scientific achievements of the 17th century create the preconditions for the further development of fundamental sciences up to the present and form the foundations of a new philosophical view of the world.
XVII century - the initial period in the formation of the bourgeois mode of production. This is an extremely difficult and controversial era in the life of European states. The era of early bourgeois revolutions and the flourishing of absolutist monarchies; the time of the scientific revolution and the final stage of the Counter-Reformation; the era of grandiose, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.
2. Baroque as an artistic movement of the 17th century
2.1. Background and features of the Baroque
Baroque (Italian Barosso - strange, bizarre) is one of the main styles in European art in the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. It originated in Italy and spread to most European countries. Embodying new ideas about the eternal variability of the world, the baroque gravitates towards spectacular spectacles, strong contrasts, the combination of the illusory and the real, towards the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music).
The Baroque style gained predominant distribution in Catholic countries affected by the Counter-Reformation processes. The Protestant Church that arose during the Reformation was very undemanding to the external spectacular side of the cult. Spectacularity was turned into the main bait of Catholicism, religious piety itself was sacrificed to it. The baroque style with its gracefulness, sometimes exaggerated expressiveness, pathetics, attention to the sensual, bodily principle, which appears very clearly even when depicting miracles, visions, religious ecstasies, met the goals of returning the flock to the bosom of the Catholic Church.
But the essence of the Baroque is broader than the tastes of the Catholic Church and the feudal aristocracy, which sought to use the effects of the grand and dazzling inherent in the Baroque, to glorify the power, splendor and splendor of the state and the habitats of persons close to the throne.
The Baroque style with particular acuteness expresses the crisis of humanism, a sense of disharmony in life, aimless impulses to the unknown. In essence, he discovers the world in a state of becoming, and the becoming world was then the world of the bourgeoisie. And in this world to be discovered for himself, the bourgeois seeks stability and order. For him luxury and wealth are synonymous with sustainability of his place in the world. It turns out that the Baroque style combines the incompatible: monumentality - with dynamism, theatrical brilliance - with solidity, mysticism, fantasticness, irrationality - with sobriety and rationality, truly burgher efficiency.
Center for the development of baroque art at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. was Rome. Park and palace ensembles, cult architecture, decorative painting and sculpture, ceremonial portrait, and later still life and landscape, become the main types and genres of Baroque art.
2.2. Baroque in architecture
Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia) is characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on the facades and interiors, volutes, a large number of rivets, bow facades with ripping in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. The domes acquire complex shapes, they are often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's in Rome. Typical Baroque details - Telamon (Atlas), Caryatid, Mascaron.
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date from around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona made significant contributions. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque-Sicilian Baroque appeared.
The Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652) is considered to be the quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture.
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France. Spanish Baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), also spread in Latin America. His most popular monument is the Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered by the faithful in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is the most elaborate version of it, and they call it ultra-baroque.
In France, the Baroque style is more modest than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and the baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque.
Artistic culture of the 17-18 centuries of modern times
Nowadays, the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are ranked among the French Baroque. They do have some of the features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the Versailles Park.
2.3. Baroque in literature
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depictions. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poems form a drawing), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality.
Baroque literature is characterized by a striving for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopaedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a striving for the study of being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). The baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of impermanence and impermanence, dream-life (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Famous play Calderon "Life is a dream". Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery) and the real-life and satirical novel (Fueretier, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the baroque style, its varieties, directions are born: marineism, gongorism (culturism), conceptism (Italy, Spain), the metaphysical school and eufuism (England).
The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Such forms as sonnet, rondo, conchetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals are widespread.
In the West, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama, P. Calderon (Spain). V. Vuatur (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain) became famous in poetry. In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich, early M. Lomonosov. "Precision literature" flourished in France during this period. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous.
Artistic culture of the 17th century
A new period in the development of culture on the threshold of the New Age. Changes in the traditional worldview, changes in the historical and cultural process.
Factors influencing the formation of culture:
1. Foreign intervention.
2. Peasant wars and uprisings.
3. The addition of absolutism, which completed the centralization of the state.
4. Legal enslavement of peasants and townspeople (1649).
5. The formation of an all-Russian market that destroyed the patriarchal order.
6. The growth of state regulation of public life.
7. Nikonian reform and schism of the church.
8. Expansion of ties with the countries of Western Europe.
9. Completion of the history of ancient Russian culture, permeated by the church worldview. Secularization of culture.
Major achievements:
1. In science - the study and generalization of experience in order to apply it to life.
2. In literature - the formation of a secular trend.
3. In architecture - the convergence of the appearance of religious and civil buildings.
4. In painting - the destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies.
1613 - the establishment of the Romanov dynasty. The first tsar is Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.
Learning to read and write in the family.Home education and training manuals.
1633 - Burtsev's primer, Smotritsky's grammar
the end of the 17th century - K. Istomin's primer, multiplication table
Secondary schools appear that remain spiritual, medieval in their type:
Lutheran in the German settlement
· Private school of boyar Rtishchev for young nobles.
School in the Kremlin Chudov Monastery funded by the patriarchal court
1665 - school at the Spassky Monastery, headed by Simeon Polotsky
· 1687 - The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in the Donskoy Monastery by Patriarch Macarius, where the Likhud brothers taught. Mathematician Magnitsky, Lomonosov, Metropolitan Platon graduated from it.
Development of scientific knowledge.The practical, applied nature of scientific knowledge is preserved:
· In medicine - folk healing, knowledge was inherited, generalized age-old experience. The foundations of state medicine were laid, the first pharmacies and hospitals were opened. The “School of Russian Healers”, the first scientific works, was opened.
· N. XVII century - "Old drawing" - the map of Russia has not survived.
· 1627 - "New drawing".
· Geographic information was contained in the "verdict books", which were made in the Yamsk order for coachmen.
· "Siberian Prikaz" collected information about Siberia and the Far East. Russian explorers: Erofei Khabarov - Far East, S. Dezhnev and V. Poyarkov - Siberia.
· End of the 17th century - S. Remezov compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia".
Historical works of a new type:
· S. Medvedev "Contemplation of short years"
· Gisel's "Synopsis" is an overview of Russian history, the only textbook on Russian history remained for a long time.
· The time of sunset of the ancient form of historical works - the annals. The last works of this genre appeared: "The Schismatic Chronicle2," The Chronicle of Many Rebellions "," Siberian Chronicles ".
Literature
· The change in the social composition of readers has led to new requirements in the literature. New genres: secular stories, legends, collections of scientific content, satirical stories ("The Tale of the Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of Ruff Ershovich"), drama, poetry (the founder of rhymed poetry was Simeon Polotsky, continued by Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev). "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune".
· Anonymous journalistic genres - "anonymous letters".
· Lives of Saints - "Life of Habakkuk" - autobiography
Folklore - fairy tales, everyday, heroic, epics, historical songs about Ermak and Stenka Razin
· Simeon of Polotsk (second half of the 17th century) - publicist, was a monk, teacher of royal children, supporter of unlimited monarchy. He wrote poems and sermons, journalism for the glory of autocracy, painted the ideal image of a wise monarch. The author of the first collections of poetry "Vertograd multicolored", "Rhyme".
Reform and schism in the church in 1653-1656conducted by Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
· Ideologists - Avvakum and Nikon.
· Nikon - correction of errors in church books and customs. He introduced baptism with three fingers, the custom - on Palm Sunday, the patriarch rides into the Kremlin on a donkey, and the tsar leads the donkey.
· The painting by V. Surikov "Boyarynya Morozova" is dedicated to the split.
ARTISTIC CULTURE 17-18 CENTURIES OF NEW TIME So
She defended the old faith, raised her hand up with two fingers.
Architecture
They say about the architecture of this time: “wooden fairy tales and stone songs”. Departure from the canons, the convergence of cult and civil construction. The main feature is "marvelous pattern".
Construction of New Jerusalem - the brainchild of Nikon
· 1667-1668 - a wooden palace in Kolomenskoye - the pinnacle of wooden architecture, "Russian Bethlehem" for Alexei Mikhailovich. They called it "the eighth wonder of the world." Architects Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov. Peter I was born in Kolomenskoye.
Izmailovo estate - another royal estate, a new type of economy: mechanization, glass factory, labyrinth garden, menagerie, theater
· The Rostov Kremlin was built in the 17th century.
Tent churches and cathedrals. The types of compositions are varied: hip-roof - octagon on a four; tiered - an increase in diminishing quadruples or octal, multi-headed - Kizhi.
Archangel Cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod
Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo - the estate of Prince Pozharsky
Assumption "Wonderful" church in Uglich
· Terem Palace in the Kremlin - Bazhen Ogurtsov, Larion Ushakov, Antipa Konstantinov, Shaturin.
Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl
Tent over the Spasskaya Tower in the Kremlin - Bazhen Ogurtsov
New style - Moscow or Naryshkin baroque in the 1890s.
Trinity Church in Nikitniki
Church of the Nativity in Putinki in Moscow
Voznesenskaya in Veliky Ustyug
· Church of the Intercession in Fili commissioned by uncle Peter I Lev Naryshkin at his estate.
Distinctive features:
kokoshniks, multi-tiered, symmetry and balance of masses, the main compositional method: a four at the base, on it is an octagon, higher - a second, completes the drum with the head. The effect of moving up vertically. Red and white bricks for decoration, decorativeness and elegance, the windows were framed by columns, above the cornices - the so-called "cock's combs" - stripes of carved decorative elements. Paintings inside cover all surfaces, creating the impression of a paradise garden.
Civil architecture - houses of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov, Golitsyn, Troekurov in Moscow, Korobov in Kaluga.
Monastic complexes: Iosifo-Volokolamsky, Spaso-Evfimiev, Novodevichy, Novoierusalimsky, Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
Painting
There are 2 stages in development: the first and second half of the century.
In the first half of the century, the struggle between two schools:
· "Godunov School" - the name comes from the fact that the icons were made by order of B. Godunov or his relatives. They support the old monumental traditions, strict adherence to the canons. Icon "It is worthy to eat".
· "Stroganov School" - strengthening of the aesthetic principle: fine drawing, elaboration of details, ornamentation, enhancement of color. Procopius Chirin, Nikifor Savin, Emelyan Moskovitin.
The second stage is a departure from tradition. Formation of a new aesthetic ideal, mastering the humanistic principles of Western art. Striving for a realistic embodiment of the artistic image. Treatises on the theory of art appear.
Representatives: Simon Ushakov (1626-1686) and Iosif Vladimirov - royal iconographers.
The main condition of painting is compliance with the truth of life. Painting is a mirror reflecting the world. "Trinity" by S. Ushakov, the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" or "Planting the Tree of the Russian State", "Savior Not Made by Hands" was written using chiaroscuro, taking into account the anatomical structure of the face.
Second half of the 17th century - in painting, interest in the portrait. Increasing realism. The first secular genre appears, the predecessor of the portrait - parsuna from distortion. "Person" ("Skopin-Shuisky").
Monumental painting is experiencing its last takeoff:
painting c. Trinity in Nikitniki - S. Ushakov and Vladimirov
c. Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl - Gury Nikitin, Sila Savin with a retinue
Armory - control over the activities of artists. The artistic center of the country. Workshop for the production of decorative and applied arts for the royal court:
· "Big outfit" for Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich - a crown, scepter, orb.
Theater
1672 - Johann Gottfried Gregory, on behalf of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, gathered a troupe of actors to stage a play in German and Russian with biblical stories. The initiator of the creation of the theater is boyar A. Matveev. After the death of the king, the theater was closed.
Simeon Polotsky -the founder of Russian drama.
1673 - "Ballet about Orpheus and Eurydice" - the birth of Russian ballet.
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The leading artistic style in the 17th century. became baroque. Baroque - this is the artistic style of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries, characterized by dynamics, emotional expression. This style originated in Italy. The style itself in modern times was called "new art", or "modern style" (moderno, art nuovo). Translated from Italian barocco means weird, artsy, bizarre, and translated from Portuguese literally means irregular pearl... The name "baroque" was given in the 18th century. opponents of this style, theorists of classicism.
Baroque manifests itself in various spheres of human life, from women's clothing to architecture. In women's clothing, the onset of the Baroque style was manifested in the fact that strict Spanish dresses were replaced by French dresses with cutouts and laces. In architecture, the representatives of the Baroque sought to express the movement of architectural forms and at the same time to balance them. In the Baroque, light heavenly architectural forms tend to be in harmony with the massive architectural structures on which they are held. Baroque manifested itself not only in the external appearance of buildings, but also in their interior decoration. This style direction was especially evident in France in interior decoration. In England, the baroque did not have a vivid expression and even bore the obvious features of classicism.
Artistic culture of the 17-18 centuries
English Baroque is often called baroque classicism.
By the 30s of the same century, another direction in art had developed in France - classicism (from lat. classicus – exemplary). Classicism - this is an artistic style in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an aesthetic standard. Classicism sought to express severity, consistency, clarity of forms. This direction was based on the ideas of a rational arrangement of the world, understood as a reasonably arranged mechanism. Classicism actually symbolized the subordination of personal interests to common interests, as well as the strengthening of central power, the unification of the nation under its leadership.
In Russia, the Winter Palace of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and the Grand Palace in Peterhof are a striking example of classicism architecture.
In music, classicism manifested itself in the works of K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), F.Y. Haydn (1732–1809), V.A. Mozart (1756–1791), Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827). The last composer studied with Salieri. Now the immortal music of L.V. Beethoven can be heard not only in the Philharmonic, but also at the ceremonies of the European Union, since his Ninth Symphony has been the official anthem of the EU since 1972.
In modern times, the style was formed rococo (from the French word rocaille – sink, decorative shell-shaped). Some art historians consider Rococo to be a kind of Baroque, which abandoned monumentality. Many art historians associate the origin of Rococo with the crisis of absolutism and the human desire to escape from life, to hide from reality in a world of fantasies and myths. Rococo tends to diminutiveness, to superficial feelings, on the basis of which such rococo genres as pastoral, poetic novels-fairy tales, and gallant novels are formed. This style is focused on creating elegant, everyday comfort. Elements of Eastern cultures can also be seen in Rococo.
During this period, the literature developed sentimentalism... In 1768, Lawrence Stern's book "A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy" was published, in which a controversy is conducted with educational unambiguity in assessing a person's actions and thoughts.
Name the literary works of the early modern era in which strong-willed and courageous literary heroes act. How can you imagine why authors of works show their characters in difficult tragic unusual situations.
Presentation on history, artistic culture "Artistic culture of the 17-18 centuries"
Answers:
One should start with what period of time is called early modern time. This is approximately the 17th - 18th centuries, even starting from the 16th, that is, in fact, the end of the Renaissance also enters. Therefore, the answers about Nikolai Ostrovsky (XX century) are “to the wrong steppe”. Lists of books can be viewed here: Popular books in the category "European Literature of the Early Modern Times (until the 18th century)" The most significant works of foreign authors of the 18th century Strong-willed and courageous heroes act, for example, in Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe), in Miguel Cervantes ( Don Quixote), I.-V. Goethe (Faust), Friedrich Schiller (Wilhelm Tell). The main stylistic trends in the literature of this era are baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism emerging at the end of the 18th century. “The baroque style is characterized by a combination of the incompatible: on the one hand, there is an interest in refined forms, paradoxes, sophisticated metaphors and allegories, in oxymorons, in verbal play, and on the other, a deep tragedy and a sense of doom. For example, in a baroque tragedy, Eternity itself could appear on the stage for Griffius and comment on the sufferings of the heroes with bitter irony. “In terms of genre, classicism preferred tragedy and ode. "" In the eternal conflict of reason and feeling, feeling and duty, so beloved by the authors of classicism, the feeling was ultimately defeated. "" Romanticism brought with it a new genre palette. The classic tragedies and odes were replaced by elegies, romantic dramas, poems ... The plot scheme becomes more complicated: paradoxical plot moves, fatal secrets, unexpected outcomes are popular ... More often than not, the romantic hero was the bearer of one passion, one idea. This brought the romantic hero closer to the hero of classicism, although all the accents were placed differently. "(To the question of why the authors of works show their characters in complex, tragic, unusual situations - to show their outstanding spiritual qualities and convey to the reader the ideas that the author wanted to express)
European painting of modern times.
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Art reflected many of the problems and values \u200b\u200bof a turbulent era. The intertwining of feudal and capitalist relations, the variety of forms of political government, the struggle between the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the intensive development of sciences, the discovery of new lands led to changes in the worldview of people. These factors have shaken the idea of \u200b\u200bthe exclusivity of man in the world, have put the individual before the problem of insecurity from natural disasters, social upheavals and the will of fate. The feeling of changeability, transience of life was embodied in the corresponding artistic themes and plots. The most prominent is the originality of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries ... reflected in the artistic styles of baroque, classicism, rococo, proto-realism.
IN painting genre appears still life aimed at comprehending the compatibility of color, space, shape and volume. In the middle of the 17th century, a new painting is born, called theorists realistic ... The manifestation of the specifics of the aesthetics of the New Age in painting was « caravaggism". Michelangelo da Caravaggio the first to introduce realistic subjects of folk life into painting.
The gradual destruction of the class-hierarchical principle led to the transformation of art sanctioned by religion. There are several artistic directions, differing from each other not so much in style as in worldview and ideological orientation.
The artistic completion of the Late Renaissance was baroque, which can be considered a transitional stage to the Age of Enlightenment. Baroque (It. Strange, bizarre) - style direction in the art of Europe k. 16 - mid. 18th century, originated in Italy and spread to most European countries. Baroque gravitates towards efficiency, contrast, combination of the illusory and the real, towards a synthesis of arts and a simultaneous precise division in genre characteristics.
The Baroque era gives rise to a peculiar look at a person and an addiction to everything theatrical, which is manifested in the slogan: the whole world is theater (Shakespeare “As you like it”). The rich port of Amsterdam opened the city theater in 1638, over the entrance to which one could read the lines of the greatest Dutch poet Vondel: "Our world is a stage, everyone has their own role here and everyone is rewarded what they deserve." And in Spain, which rival Holland, Vondel's contemporary Calderón de la Varca created his famous masterpiece The Great Theater of the World, representing the world as a stage in a truly baroque sense.
People of that time always felt the eye of God and the attention of the whole world on themselves, but this filled them with a sense of self-respect, a desire to make their life as bright and meaningful as it appeared in painting, sculpture and drama. Like painted portraits, baroque palaces reflect their creators' self-image. These are eulogies in stone that extol the virtues of those who live in them. A work of the Baroque era, glorifying the greats and their accomplishments, amaze us with their challenge and at the same time demonstrate an attempt to drown out the longing of their creators.
The shade of disappointment lies with the Baroque art from the very beginning. Love for theater and stage metaphor reveals the realization that any external manifestation is illusory. Praising rulers and heroes - in the plays of the French playwright Corneille, the English poet Dryden, and the German writer and playwright Griffius - may have been an attempt to delay oblivion that threatened to inevitably swallow everyone, even the greatest. The Roman emperor Titus in the tragedy of Corneille "Titus and Berenice" says: "Every moment of life is a step towards death."
The scientific rationale given by the German astronomer Kepler to the movement of the planets along an ellipse and the constant arrangement of celestial bodies, despite their perpetual motion, is consonant with the idea of \u200b\u200bdynamism, elliptical outlines and predetermined forms of architecture, painting and literature of the Baroque era. A keen sensation of rushing time, absorbing everything and everyone; a sense of the futility of all earthly things, which poets and preachers from all over Europe asserted about; a gravestone, inevitably awaiting everyone and reminding that the flesh is mortal, man is dust - all this, oddly enough, led to an unusual love of life and life affirmation. This paradox became the main theme of baroque poetry, the authors called people to pick flowers of pleasure while summer rages around; love and enjoy the multicolored masquerade of life. The knowledge that life would end like a dream revealed its true meaning and value for those who were lucky. Despite special attention to the theme of the frailty of all things, the culture of the Baroque gave the world literary works of unprecedented love of life and strength.
Under Louis 15, absolutism is in decline: huge amounts of money are spent on luxury and pleasure according to the principle "After us, even a flood." In these conditions, a gallant style is born and rapidly develops - rococo, which is characterized by:
Theme of a festival, masquerade, pastoral, light flirting,
Refinement and sophistication,
Internal dynamism,
Miniature forms,
Playfulness,
· An abundance of decorations, trimmings (especially in the form of curls).
Researchers consider Rococo as a degenerated Baroque (we are talking about the Rococo style of the second quarter and the middle of the 18th century). This view is quite legitimate from the point of view of the evolution of form - dynamics, rhythm, relationships between the whole and the part. Indeed, the powerful spatial dynamics, striking contrasts and impressive plastic play of baroque forms are replaced by a style that seems to transfer the curvilinear constructions of the baroque into a new register. Disregarding the facades, the Rococo plays ornamental symphonies on the walls and ceilings of interiors, weaves lace patterns. At the same time, Rococo reaches the heights of virtuosity, grace and brilliance, but completely loses the baroque monumentality, solidity and strength.
It is known that the order oriented architecture towards a person and at the same time heroized his being. Rococo architects (his own sphere is interior decoration) turned to a real person with his real needs. They seemed to have forgotten about the building, the architecture itself, and switched to what it was actually intended for: they began to take care of comfort, surround a person with an atmosphere of convenience and grace. It is essential that the new style has become the style of not rich houses, in which, with a few techniques, it has introduced the same spirit of coziness and comfort without emphasized luxury.
Another direction - classicism of the 18th century. - is also perceived as "Lightweight" classicismthe previous century. After all, it has more archaeological precision than its predecessor, more grace, invention and variety, but also lacks weight and strength. There is a temptation to consider the “second” classicism as a revised edition of the “first”, since one can trace how one classicism passed into another even in the work of architects, for example, the Blondel family. However, both rococo and classicism of the 18th century. represent something fundamentally new in relation to their direct predecessors, as well as to pre-existing styles in general.
This difference indicates that the break between the cultures of the 17th and 18th centuries. was internal, hidden. Art historians point out that Rococo is the first orderless style of European art in centuries.
His perception of the world was based on the idea of \u200b\u200ban absolute monarchy. The philosophical premise of classicism was rationalism. The main requirement for a classicist artist is "nobility of design." Classicism tends towards the historicity of events. Reality with its landscape and portraiture is a secondary problematic. Classicism is based on the obligation of the canon according to the principle of imitation of antiquity. Classicists pose the problem of the socialization of the individual. Spiritual beauty begins to be exalted above physical, and works of art - above nature. Nature ceases to be a role model.
Classicists strive for typification. The principle of creating a type is based on highlighting one of the most striking features in the character, which deliberately protrudes. The typical image turns into an abstraction. The typical character of the classicists is devoid of individuality.
An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century. there was also the emergence of trends that did not have their own stylistic form and did not need to develop it. This largest ideological trend was sentimentalism, associated with educational ideas about the principles of kindness and purity innate in man, which are lost along with the natural initial state. Sentimentalism did not require a special stylistic design, since it was addressed not to the external, but to the internal, not to the universal, but to the personal... But a special color, a special feeling of penetration into the intimate world, the subtlety of emotions, even a sense of proportions and airiness of texture are somehow connected with sentimentalism. All this created a feeling of gentle grace, closeness to nature and inner nobility. Sentimentalism turns into pre-romanticism : “Natural man” comes into collision with social and natural elements, with gloomy storms and upheavals of life, the premonition of which is embedded in the entire culture of the 18th century.
The clash of individuality with society, with the tragedies of life, the transition of the ideal into the sphere of unrealizable fantasy, lead to the 19th century, when bourgeois individualism and the atomization of society put an end to the phenomenon of style as a major historical and artistic category.
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The seventeenth century is a turning point in the history of Russia and its culture. In this century, almost all the ancient Russian lands merged. The most important fact in the political life of the state was the reunification of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples. By the end of the century, Russia reaches the Black Sea and begins a war with the Swedes for access to the Baltic Sea. Lands in the east of the country are being developed more and more resolutely.
This is the time of the most acute social conflicts, which showed the strength of the people, their desire to resist the unbearable oppression from the ruling classes. In the 17th century, Russia's political and cultural ties with neighboring distant countries expanded and deepened. These connections make people pay more and more attention to the cultural life of Western Europe, which has a significant impact on the art of Russia. Most importantly, the mainstream religious ideology had cracked. The protest against the secular and church authorities gave rise to various ideological movements in which the desire to get rid of the oppressive tutelage of religion and justify the priority of reason and common sense over its dogmas was manifested. This process can be traced in religious art, which gradually loses its adamant dogmatic character and is sometimes filled with openly secular content. The collapse of the medieval artistic system, the decisive overcoming of its principles opens the way for the art of the new era in the 18th century. The most important fact of the artistic life of Russia in the 17th century was the centralization of art leadership. Changes in it were regulated by the authorities. For all lands, Moscow has become an indisputable authority in the field of art. At the same time, this, of course, did not exclude the development of local art schools or the activities of provincial artists who still piously adhered to the norms of the old art.
Already at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, along with the trend in icon painting, oriented towards the monumental style of painting of the 15th-early 16th centuries and called "Godunov's" letters, a different direction was formed. It is represented by icons of "Stroganov" writing, the authors of which set as their goal the creation of works (usually of small size) intended for home prayer houses. The icons of Procopius Chirin, Istoma Savin, Nikifor Savin, Emelyan Moskvitin are distinguished by their thoroughness of decoration, the use of gold and silver.
By the middle of the 17th century, the miniature painting technique of the Stroganov masters was transferred to works of large size. These are the icons "John in the Desert" (20-30s) or "Annunciation with akathist" (1659, authors Yakov Kazanets, Tavrilo Kondratyev, Simon Ushakov).
In the middle and second half of the 17th century, icon painters worked, preparing Russian painting for the transition to the position of realistic art. First of all, Simon Ushakov belongs to them. True, in creative practice he is less consistent than in theoretical reasoning. One of the artist's favorite compositions is Savior Not Made by Hands. In these icons, Ushakov strove for a volumetric, carefully modeled form, to create a real spatial environment. At the same time, he was unable to overcome the conventions of the old icon painting. And yet, the desire for lifelike verisimilitude, which Simon Ushakov and his comrades - Bogdan Saltanov, Yakov Kazanets, Kirill Ulanov, Nikita Pavlovets, Ivan Bezmin and other masters demonstrated in their work, bore fruit in the future. New tendencies in Russian painting of the 17th century manifested themselves with particular clarity in the "parsun" (from the word "person"), which was the first step in the development of realistic portraiture. True, both in icon painting and in paintings of this era we meet with images of real people. However, here these images are subject to the canons of icon painting. Parsun is another matter. The main task set by its creator is, perhaps, a more accurate transfer of the characteristic features of this person. And in this, artists sometimes achieve tremendous expressiveness, demonstrating an extraordinary acuteness of artistic vision. The best Parsuns include the images of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Prince Skopin-Shuisky, Ivan IV and others. In the second half of the 17th century, many foreign painters worked in Moscow, including the Dutch artist D. Wuchters. It is he who is credited with the group portrait "Patriarch Nikon delivering a lesson to the clergy." Undoubtedly, the works of foreign masters influenced Russian painters, helping them to enter the path of realistic art. It is no coincidence that in the second half, portrait works appear in the most direct way that anticipate the art of portraiture of the 18th century.
Many fresco cycles have survived from the 17th century to our time. Their authors are artists from Moscow, Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Nizhny Novgorod artels and masters of other art centers. Their work sometimes merges with icon painting, but at the same time, the very form of mural painting demanded from them special techniques and methods of image. It is noteworthy that it is in the paintings that, first of all, new trends make themselves felt: the amusement of the story, numerous everyday details.
The nature of the monumental painting of the 17th century was determined by the activities of the artists who worked in Moscow. Among the most interesting monuments are the paintings of the Archangel Cathedral (1652-1666).
The most important impression that the paintings of the 17th century leave is the impression of dynamics, internal energy. True, Rostov's paintings still retain the mastery of a smooth, flexible line that freely outlines the silhouette of the figures. In the Church of the Savior on Seny, deacons are represented in festive vestments. Their postures are calm, their movements are measured and solemn. But even here the artist pays tribute to the times: brocade clothes are decorated with intricate floral and geometric patterns. The painting of the Church of the Savior on the Seny and the Church of the Resurrection (1670) is a festive and solemn art. In contrast to the above-mentioned murals of Rostov, the murals of the Yaroslavl churches of Ilya the Prophet (1694-1695, an artel of artists led by D. Plekhanov) are full of active movement. Artists do not pay attention to the harmony of silhouettes, to the sophistication of lines. They are completely absorbed in action, which unfolds in numerous scenes. The "heroes" of the frescoes gesticulate violently, and this gesture is one of the main means of characterizing them. The color of the Yaroslavl paintings plays an extremely important role in creating the impression of festivity. The colors in them are bright, sonorous. This deprives even eschatological scenes of a sense of dramatic tension, although artists try in such compositions as The Last Judgment of the Baptist Church to make viewers think of the inevitable retribution “in the next world” for sins in this world. Georgieva T. S. Russian culture: history and modernity: textbook. allowance. - M .: Yurayt, 1998 .-- P. 25.
Thus, the Russian artistic culture of the 17th century was based on Moscow, local art schools, and was influenced by foreign art schools. At the same time, it increasingly acquired a secular character.
Culturology and art history
Common characteristics - 1) the separation of the art world into a relatively autonomous sphere; 2) theoretical awareness of its qualitative unity. This process began during the Renaissance. Even then, artistic and creative activity began to gradually isolate from the mass of guild craft.
Artistic culture of the 17-18 centuries.
Organizational (institutional) aspect of culture:
Common characteristics - 1)the separation of the art world into a relatively autonomous sphere; 2) theoretical awareness of its qualitative unity... This process began during the Renaissance. Even then, artistic and creative activity began to gradually isolate from the mass of guild craft. The arts began to be reckoned into the sphereintellectual pursuits... In the 17th century. S. Perrot suggested replacing the concept “free arts " on the concept "fine arts". There was a problem on this pathtaste ... The 18th century is the next stage.The mimesis principle was defined as a single principle of the fine arts.This defined and structurally organized the spherecultural space... Its main features: imagination, the ability to give pleasure, involvement in beauty.
The isolation of the fine arts led to the formation of a new type of relationship between the artist and the world. It was inherited from the Renaissancepatronage (Patron is the name of a Roman rich man of the 1st century BC, lover and patron of sciences and arts). Patrons value creative individuality, and an artist, as a rule, does not expect more. High court positions were an exception (for example, Velazquez was a court marshal). At the French court, artists were appointed to the position of valet (Valet de chamber ). Artist of the 17th century A. Sacchi was one of the domestic servants of Cardinal Antonio Barberini. Together with the artist, a gardener, a dwarf and an old nanny were in this position. Then he was transferred to a higher rank of servants, which included scribes, poets and secretaries. But in the 17th century, another type of attitude towards artists (Holland) was already formed, which is characterized bybreaking the personal connection between the artist and the customer... The artist begins to work for the market, that is, for an anonymous potential buyer. The artist became freer, but he was lonely and helpless.
In this regard, began to take shape andnew forms of contact of a creative individual with "art consumers": concerts, exhibitions. A new type of "consumer" has been formed -audience, spectatoras something collective, massive... The first art exhibitions in Rome and Paris date back to the end of the 17th century.
Emerged two types of authorship - 1) primary - the actual composition; 2) secondary - performance... And from here - new corps of "intermediaries" - publisher, seller, entrepreneur. The indivisibility of primary and secondary authorship in drama lasts the longest: Shakespeare and Moliere were actors.
The professionalization of art has led tolegally enforceable copyright.
Opposition and interaction of various artistic systems: classicism, mannerism, baroque, enlightenment realism, sentimentalism.
Aesthetic dominant - drama.
A new image of a person. The ideal of the universal man has been lost. The first place is promotedinner drama of personal life... In classicism - the drama of the collision of passion and duty. In sentimentalism - the drama of power over a person of the irrational (passion, longing, faith). In Mannerism and Baroque - the drama of opposition to the rationalism of classicism.
Polymorphism and polystylism.
Morphological aspect (art forms characteristic of the period):
In classicism, on the first plane - drama theatre... It affects all kinds and genres.
In the art of music this was expressed, first of all, in the developmentmusical theater (Monteverdi, Scarlatti, Pergolesi, Lully, Rameau, Purcell, Handel, Mozart, Gluck). Venice alone has 7 theaters. Both opera and ballet are developing. The opera includes dance episodes. In France, Moliere and Lully took part in the creation of ballet performances. This is the direct influence of the theater. Indirect influence -the drama of the music itself... "In the musical language of that time, there is a" stage structure "(Starobinsky , 1964). Mystery is replaced by opera. The symphony grows out of a theatrical overture. The characteristic features of Beethoven's music are "dramatic symphonism", "dialogical principle", "clash of opposing ideas and wills" (I.I.Sollertinsky).
In architecture and fine artsthe influence of the theater is very multifaceted. The architecture of the Renaissance is oriented towards the picturesque effect, the architecture of the New Age towards the theater. There is a lot of decor, playful and hedonistic motives in architecture. Hence the widespread use of ornament. It is symptomatic that it was in the ornament that Kant saw the embodiment of the pure beauty of art, which he compared with the beauty of flowers in nature. A picturesque painting is thought of as a mese-en-scene. Even in a landscape, the space is constructed as if it were a closed cube of a scene (a curtain-like structure). This is first observed in Dutch painting. The genre of the serial picture is spreading as a sequence of plot-related scenes (Hogarth).
In realistically oriented artin 1st place - not a theater, but literature, more precisely - epic genre and epic genres. Advantages of literature –1) the ability to embody such scales of space and time, which the stage and fine arts were not available; 2) the ability to include the author-subject in the artistic structure. In this regard, dramatic works (comedies) began to be written in prose (Beaumarchais, Goldoni, Diderot, Lessing). In painting, the narrative led to the fact that the paintings were built on the principle of social conditioning of character by the environment. Hence - the demarcation of classical genres into genre varieties.
A characteristic feature of the artistic culture of the 17-18 centuries is the developmentself-awareness of culture.The artistic systems of Baroque and Classicism have developed their own aesthetic theories.
Basic principles of the Baroque:
- the main tool of creativity is a sharp, quick mind, creative intuition;
- metaphorical poetics (nature is a gigantic metaphor, and art unravels its secrets).
Basic principles of classicism:
- imitate based on rules; normativity;
- the goal of art is the upbringing of a personality, which is not characterized by abstract virtue, but a person-citizen;
- dominance of the generic over the individual, the ideal over the real.
Basic principles of developing realism:
- direct and unbiased imitation (objectivity);
- moralizing;
- beauty is a form of truth and goodness.
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The humanists of the Renaissance set before humanity the task of subordinating all the forces of nature and transforming the norms of social life. The seventeenth century focused the attention of minds on the first task. The 18th century directed all the best intellectual forces to solve social problems. So the 17th century became a period of scientific mastery of nature, and the 18th century - a century of social reconstruction.
The 17th century marked the birth of the bourgeois system. The first blows were struck against feudalism: revolutions in the Netherlands (1566-1609) and England (1640-1688), the establishment of an absolutist state in France, which ensured the growth of the bourgeoisie. The rise of the economy in the advanced countries of Europe, the flourishing of manufacturing and trade created the basis for the progress of the exact and natural sciences. The great discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Leibniz, Descartes in mathematics, astronomy, physics, philosophy contributed to the approval of materialistic ideas (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza), the expansion and deepening of ideas about nature and the universe. Based on these achievements, the thinkers of the 17th century came to a holistic systemic view of the world.
A similar process takes place in art: a more holistic and deeper perception of reality is affirmed. In the 17th century, in connection with the desire for a broader reflection of reality in art, there is a variety of creative methods, ideological and artistic trends, genre forms. Artistic pursuits are embodied in the mainstream of three directions: realism, baroque and classicism.
Renaissance realism continues its development, the democratic traditions of the Renaissance humanists are revealed in the works of significant writers, artists, sculptors. These are the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega, the Italian artist Caravaggio, the great Dutch painter Rembrandt, the Spanish humanist Velazquez and others. According to the French writer Charles Sorel, the realists set themselves the task of "showing a picture of human life", to consider its various aspects.
Baroque art * 228 strove to reveal life in movement, in the struggle of changing elemental forces. It affected the reader, the viewer with dramatic tension, expression of forms. Baroque art was built on contrasts, asymmetry, it gravitated towards grandeur, overloaded with decorative motives; in painting, it strove to violate direct linear perspective, it preferred lines - a spot, mass, light and shadow contrasts. The main types of Baroque art are park and palace ensembles, cult architecture, decorative painting and sculpture, ceremonial portrait, still life. The heroes of the Baroque works of art were depicted in a state of ecstasy, accomplishment of a feat, triumph, or in scenes of torment and suffering. In extreme manifestations, baroque art came to mysticism, irrationalism.
* 228: (Baroque (Italian barosso) - bizarre, strange.)
The Baroque style was most vividly embodied in architecture and sculpture, although the features of this style found expression in the works of Caravaggio, Rubens; Baroque influenced the work of the writers Corneille, Racine, Milton, German poets and others. Baroque developed in various countries: in Italy, where this style was especially vividly embodied in architecture (baroque Rome), in Spain, Portugal, Flanders, later in Germany, Eastern Europe, Job's World. In the 18th century, Baroque developed brilliantly in Russia and Ukraine.
Classicism * 229 was engendered by the Renaissance and was native to Italy. It arose together with the revived ancient theater and was originally a direct opposition to medieval drama. Seeing in ancient drama an example of artistic perfection, theorists of classicism formulated the laws of theater on its basis. Already in 1526, the Italian playwright Trissino wrote the tragedy "Sofonisba" based on the works of Sophocles and Euripides, taking the plot from the story of Titus Livy, which reflected the events of Roman history.
* 229: (Classicism (lat.classicus - exemplary); the most important feature of this method is the appeal to samples and forms of antiquity as an ideal aesthetic standard)
But classicism was developed not in Italy, but in France. It was there that the canons of classicism were developed in the book by I. Boileau "Poetic Art". Classicism in 17th century France became the official artistic method recognized by the government. The policy of the absolutist state in the period of transition to a national structure, the principle of statehood and civil discipline demanded from art the strictest discipline of form.
The flourishing of classicism was largely determined by the materialistic and rationalist philosophy of Descartes. Reason became the only source of truth; thought, not emotion, became the dominant element of art.
The main canons of classicism were as follows:
- the principle of truthful reflection of reality;
- rules of three unities: place, time and action;
- characterization of the character according to any one trait prevailing in this character; the creation of a type that reflects the general, universal, eternal;
- hierarchy of genres: high - tragedy, epic, ode; low - comedy, satire, fable. The sublime and the low, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary were strictly distinguished;
- a sharply contrasting image of characters - villains and heroes;
- didactic principle: teaching about the educational role of art, the purpose of which is to expose and punish vice and reward virtue.
Basic artistic techniques have occupied a different place in European art schools. In 17th century Italy, the Baroque method was dominant, and Rome became one of its main centers. Baroque masters strove for grandiose dimensions, complex forms, and monumental elevation. There is a synthesis of plastic arts, in which sculpture and painting are subordinate to architecture.
The origins of baroque architecture lay in the late work of the Renaissance figures - Vignola, Palladio and especially Michelangelo. The expressiveness and picturesqueness of the Baroque found expression in the work of such architects as Barromini (1599-1667), Bernini (1598-1680), whose largest architectural work was the completion of the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome and the design of the square in front of him. The altar group in the Church of Santa Maria della Victoria - "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" is distinguished by the exquisite craftsmanship of execution, the fidelity of vital details. An example of Baroque sculpture by Bernini is the magnificent ceremonial portrait of the French "sun king" Louis XIV.
The most prominent exponent of new ideas in painting of this period was Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1573-1610). The closeness to the masters of the High Renaissance is manifested in the painting "The Young Man with the Lute". Caravaggio boldly interprets religious images. His paintings are distinguished by sharp contrasts of light and shade, plastic modeling of figures depicted in complex angles, monumentality ("The Confession of the Apostle Matthew", "The Conversion of Saul" and others). Tragic power is distinguished by "Entombment", the truth and depth of experience - "Dormition of Mary." Caravaggio's impact on the development of realism in European art was significant. Following his traditions was called caravadjism.
At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, an academic direction in painting took shape in Italy, which was embodied in the Bologna Academy (its founders were the brothers Lodovico, Agostino and Annibale Carracci). Turning to the traditions of the Renaissance, supporters of this trend asserted the inviolability of the norms and ideals of the beauty of the Renaissance, which eventually became clichés.
The successors of the Carracci case were Guido Reni (1575-1642) and Guercino (Francesco Barbieri, 1591-1666).
In the 17th century, the formation of the Flanders national art school takes place, in which baroque forms are intertwined with realistic ones. In Flemish painting, such features as the thirst for knowledge of the world, nationality, cheerfulness, and solemn festivity found expression.
The largest artist, the head of the Flemish school of painting, was Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), in whose work powerful realism is combined with a peculiar national form of the Baroque. His works are characterized by a sense of dynamics, changeability of life. Rubens creates altar compositions, the plots of which are based on episodes of martyrdom, on the image of suffering, HO AT the same time the moral victory of the dying heroes. Such is the composition "The Exaltation of the Cross", where a cross raised upward with the mighty figure of the crucified Christ, illuminated by a narrow sheaf of light, dominates a group of grieving loved ones and gloating executioners.
Rubens turned to mythological and allegorical themes, which made it possible to embody heroic feelings. Like the masters of the Renaissance, Rubens glorified man, the harmonious unity of his spirit and body. He created works: "Bacchanalia", "Abduction of the daughters of Leucippus", "Perseus and Andromeda", full of expression and tension "Hunting for a wild boar" and "Hunting for lions", portraits, self-portraits, etc. Rubens's work was of particular importance for the formation of Flemish painting (Van Dyck, 1599-1641 and Jacob Jordanes, 1593-1678 and others).
In the 17th century, still life was established as an independent genre in Flanders painting. Frans Snyders (1579-1657) was an outstanding master of the monumental decorative still life of "gifts of nature" and "hunting scenes". In his still lifes, filling the entire picturesque space, objects obscure each other, hang from tables and fall to the floor. Decorativeness is achieved by a peculiar color: bright contrasting colors stand out against a neutral background. The balance of color masses, clear horizontals of tables and benches organize compositions ("Still Life with a Swan" and others).
The art of Holland in the 17th century especially clearly reflected the trends of the era. The leading place in painting was taken by the genre of genre, portrait, landscape, still life. The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (1580-1666). His contemporary was the great painter Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1666) - one of the heights of world painting. Rembrandt was attracted not by individual aspects of everyday life, but by strong mental movements of a person, dramatic collisions of a common human nature. He created group portraits (a portrait of doctors "Anatomy lesson of Dr. Tuln", a portrait of a company of shooters "Night Watch" and others), where the characters are connected by a single plot and at the same time the individual traits of each are conveyed. Rembrandt turns to biblical themes: he writes "The Sacrifice of Abraham", "David's Farewell to Jonathan", "The Holy Family" and others, in which the depth of human feelings conquers. In simple everyday scenes, the artist reveals the complexity of the spiritual life of his heroes.
Rembrandt's talent found its brilliant expression in portraits ("Portrait of Saskia", "Self-portrait with Saskia on her knees", "Portrait of Hendrickje Stoffels" and others). The artist's color palette, the most inimitable "Rembrandt" of painting means - chiaroscuro, which allows creating radiance in the darkness, serves to reveal the artist's thoughts, feelings, views of the world. This property manifested itself with particular force in the artist's self-portraits.
The famous "Danae" is distinguished by the depth and beauty of the image, the image of a woman transformed and beautiful in her love impulse. The highest achievement of Rembrandt's work is the painting "The Return of the Prodigal Son", written on the plot of the Gospel parable. In the image of the tattered, shaved-headed prodigal son who returned to his abandoned father, the tragic path of knowing life, the feeling of shame and repentance is expressed. The image of the father embodies the highest human happiness, fatherly love and forgiveness - the covenant that the great master left to people.
In the 17th century, the principles of the Dutch realistic landscape were formed (Ruisdael, 1628 / 29-1682), still life was widely spread. Prominent still life artists were Pieter Claesz (circa 1597-1661) and Willem Heda (1594-1680/82). They wrote numerous "breakfasts", striking, it would seem, by a disorderly heap of objects (hams, pies, glasses, etc.). But the composition of these works is strictly thought out, grayish-golden, olive tonal scale
unites items. The still life masters include Beyeren, Kalf and others.
The end of the 16th-17th centuries is the heyday of Spanish culture. The art of Spain was influenced by the influence of the medieval heritage (Gothic style), Moorish culture (in connection with the centuries-old domination of the Arabs in Spain), the influence of the Catholic Church. All the art of Spain is imbued with religious ideas, but it is turned to real life,
The flourishing of Spanish painting is associated with the name of Domenico Teotokopouli, nicknamed El Grsko (1541-1614). The work of the artist, influenced by the Italian Renaissance (Titian, Tintoretto), Byzantine painting (icons and mosaics), is distinguished by the depth of philosophical thinking, humanistic orientation and at the same time tragedy, which reflected the crisis of humanistic ideals, a sense of loneliness, confusion and anxiety. El Greco's dramatically expressive art can hardly be attributed to any direction. The figures in his paintings are stretched in length, fancifully deformed in the name of special expressiveness. And the whole space of the picture is deformed.
The most significant works of El Greco: "Burial of Count Orgaz", "Apostles Peter and Paul", "Martyrdom of St. Maurice", "Portrait of a knight with a hand on his chest" and others. In his portraits, El Greco embodies various types of Spaniards, reveals the features of their spiritual appearance.
Prominent representatives of the realistic school were Jusepe Ribera (1591-1652), Francisco Zurbaran (1598 - about 1664). Spanish painting reached the peak of its development in the work of Velazquez.
Diego Rodriguez de Silva Velazquez (1599-1660) is one of the greatest realists. The strength of his creativity lies in the depth of psychological analysis, in the coloristic skill of artistic manner. Velazquez, being the court painter of Philip IV, created many portraits of the king, his family members, confidants and jesters. Despite the constraining framework, Velazquez spoke the truth about people with his brush. It is significant that Pope Innocent X, seeing his portrait, exclaimed: "Too true!"
Velazquez wrote on mythological subjects ("Bacchus", "Venus with a mirror"), on battle ("Delirium surrender"). The first among the artists of Western Europe, he glorified the beauty of everyday work ("Spinners"). Velazquez's discoveries in the field of light and color, the peculiarities of his realism, had a significant impact on the painting of the 18th - 19th centuries.
The son of the Renaissance was the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega (1562-1635). The framework of classicism was tight for him, he considered it necessary to "mix the tragic with the funny", "a mixture of the sublime and the funny." Theater Lope de Vega has a life-affirming character, its heroes are energetic, optimistic people, the conflict is based on themes of honor and heroism. His comedies are "a mirror of life". The central work of Lope de Vega is the heroic drama "The Sheep Spring". The theme of the play is the uprising in the town of Fuente Ovehuna (translated as "Sheep Spring"). In the center are images of simple peasants Laurencia and Frandoso, their love overcomes all obstacles.
In 17th century France, classicism prevailed. Three outstanding talents brought fame to this method: Corneille, Racine and Moliere.
Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) created the tragedy "Sid", dedicated to the hero of the Spanish folk epic Rodrigo Diaz, nicknamed Sid. Turning to the theme of the love of Rodrigo and Jimena, Corneille focuses the stage action on the conflict of duty and feeling, which was characteristic of the problems of classicism.
Jean Racine (1639-1699) with his tragedy "Andromache" opened a new direction in French theater. If Corneille was the singer of human strength, then Racine was the singer of weakness. He reveals the picture of the moral disorder of personality in the tragedy "Phaedra". The conflict between passion and duty reaches its limit, leading to a moral crisis of the individual.
Moliere (Jean Baptiste Pockley, 1622-1673) - the creator of the national French comedy. He saw the purpose of his work in "correcting people, amusing them", "to expose the vices of ... centuries in funny images." Moliere did not object to the classicist rules, but his comedies gravitated towards realism. Moliere has written over thirty plays. 11appbolse significant of them - "Tartuffe", "Don Juan", "Misanthrope", "The Miser", "Bourgeois in the nobility", "Scapena's crooks" and others. In them, the playwright exposed universal human vices, made them recognizable in any environment and at all times.
The founder of classicism in French painting was Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). His works are distinguished by deep ideas, thoughts and feelings. He believed that art should remind a person "of contemplation of the forehead flew and wisdom, with the help of which he will be able to remain firm and unshakable in the face of the blows of fate." Within the framework of plots from ancient mythology and the Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of the modern era. In his works, he strove for stately tranquility, noble restraint, balance. His ideal is a hero who maintains an imperturbable peace of mind in life's trials, capable of accomplishing a feat. Poussin was inspired by the art of antiquity and the Renaissance, which was reflected in the works - "Sleeping Venus", "Death of Germanicus", "Tancred and Herminia", "Arcadian shepherds" and others. One of the characteristic features of his talent is the ability to reveal the inner world of a person in movement, in gesture, in rhythms.
In the 1750s and 60s, Poussin turned to the landscape, which is the scene of the action of legendary heroes ("Landscape with Polyphemus" and others). The call for self-knowledge and spiritual improvement is contained in Poussin's "Self-portrait".
The classical landscape was developed in the work of Lorrain (Claude Jellet, 1600-1682). These landscapes are dreamy and elegiac. Lorrain enriches landscapes with fresh observations, he subtly feels the light-air environment, the slightest changes in nature. The best landscapes include "Noon", "Evening", "Morning", "Night". The artist achieved a sense of the breadth of space, movement inward. His paintings are distinguished by a soft painting manner and harmonious coloring. For the first time in French painting, Lorrain depicted the harbors of France and genre scenes from the life of fishermen. The master's ink drawings are romantic and emotional. Lorrain's landscapes had a significant impact on the development of the landscape genre in European painting. The tendencies of classicism developed in the painting of Callot (1592-1635), Latour (1593-1652), Louis Lenin (1593-1648),
In the second half of the 17th century, painting and sculpture in France acquired a decorative character and submitted to architecture. In 1671 the Academy of Architecture was founded. A new type of regular centralized city is being formed. The order system of antiquity is applied; in the construction of volumes and compositions of buildings, strict regularity, order and symmetry are established. State park ensembles, palaces of a new type, for example, the Vaux le Vicomte palace, were created.
The most complete embodiment of these trends was achieved in the grandiose ensemble of Versailles (1668-1689), which was the main residence of the king and glorified the boundless power of French absolutism. According to A. Benois, Versailles is "a poem of mankind in love with nature, dominating this very nature" (architects Louis Levoy, André Le Nôtru, Jules Hardouin-Monsard).
The Versailles plan is clear, symmetrical and slender. The elongated palace dominates the surrounding area and organizes it. Dominating straight lines, smooth planes and geometric shapes of parterre, reservoirs, trimmed trees, flower beds united the park ensemble. In Versailles, the desire of man to subordinate nature to reason and will is manifested everywhere.
Statues, sculptural groups, reliefs, fountain compositions played an important role in the design of the palace and park ensemble. The desire for pomp was combined with a sense of proportion, the beginning of order. Cities were rebuilt, primarily Paris. It was decorated with Saint Louis Square (now Vendôme), Victory Square, which became the center of the city's network of streets, the Vosges Square. The so-called House of Invalids with a cathedral is being erected (in imitation of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome).
The style of the era is vividly represented in the eastern façade of the Louvre (Archbishop Claude Perrot), built in addition to the main parts of the building erected in the 16th century (architects Lescaut and Lemercier). Decorated with a Corinthian colonnade, it stretches 173 meters and is designed for perception from a distance. A work of mature French classicism, the Louvre served as a model for many of the residences of the rulers of Europe. Decorative forms prevailed in sculpture, in which classicism was combined with elements of Baroque pathos (Bathing Nymphs, equestrian monuments of Louis XIV by François Girardon; portraits, allegorical figures of rivers, tombstones by Antoine Kuazevox).
The creativity of the sculptor, architect, painter Pierre Puget (1620-1694), who worked in Toulon and Marseilles (Atlantes, Milom Crotonsky and others), was distinguished by an original talent.
The 18th century was called the era of the Enlightenment, imbued with the spirit of the struggle against all products of feudalism, culminating in the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. Over the course of the century, a gigantic breakdown of all social and state foundations, concepts and criteria of the old society has taken place.
XVIII century - the age of Reason; the exact and natural sciences, geography, archeology, history, and materialistic philosophy, connected with technology, are developing. An important event was the publication of the "Encyclopedic, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts" (1751-1780), organized by D. Diderot, the participants J.-L. D "Alambert, Voltaire, C.-L. Montesquieu and other scientists who received the name of" encyclopedists. "An outstanding philosophical work was" The System of Nature "by P. Holbach (1723-1789). D. Diderot (1713-1784) introduced into the materialistic teaching elements of dialectics.
But in the age of reason, the freshness and sincerity of a feeling capable of reviving the primordial virtues of "natural man" was not suppressed. Rousseau asserted: "Man is great only by his feelings." These views found expression in an in-depth psychological analysis, embodied in a gallery of portrait painting, in historical landscapes (Gsyisborough, Watteau, Berne, Robert), in a "lyric novel", "poems in prose" (Rousseau, Prevost, Marivaux, Fielding, Stern, Richardson), in music (Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Italian opera composers). The heroes of the works of art are both "little people" and a civilized intellectual person born of educational culture.
The art of the 18th century went through two stages. The first lasted until 1740-1760 and was characterized by the modification of late baroque forms into the decorative rococo style. During this period, a combination of witty and mocking skepticism and sophistication was observed: a refined analysis of feelings and moods was made, at the same time, there was a gravitation towards the "philosophy of pleasure", towards the fabulous images of the East.
The second stage (second half of the 18th century) is associated with the deepening of ideological and artistic contradictions. The Royal Academy in France made an attempt to revive the ceremonial style of academic art of the late 17th century, which was supposed to strengthen the authority of "enlightened absolutism". Representatives of progressive thought turned to the ancient heritage; classicism was re-established, opposing the decorative baroque with a sense of proportion, nobility of thoughts and actions. New in the classicism of the 18th century was the anti-feudal orientation, in France - the revolutionary character, brought about by the ideas of the struggle against absolutism.
At the same time, realism continued to develop in the 18th century. Using the materialistic teaching of Aristotle about art, the enlighteners began to lay the theoretical foundations of critical realism, which had already taken root in art in the 19th century.
In the last third of the 18th century, a new artistic trend, sentimentalism, whose homeland was England, reached widespread use. The name was given to it by Lawrence Stern with his novel "Sentimental Journey", but its true founder was the English writer Richardson, then the principles of sentimentalism were embodied in the works of Schiller, Goethe, Rousseau, Diderot, in painting - in the canvases of Chardin and Greuze. An honorable place in their works was taken by nature, the contemplation of its beauty. In contrast to the sublime and majestic (classicism), sentimentalism brought touching into art; feeling was elevated to a cult, and sensitivity to a moral principle.
The formation of a pre-romantic direction is associated with sentimentalism.
A product of his time - the era of the bourgeois revolution in England - was the work of Daniel Defoe (1660-1731), who in the novel "Robinson Crusoe" affirmed the idea of \u200b\u200ba strong-willed active personality.
The novel by J. Swift (1667-745) "Gulliver's Travels" was a mocking and sad reflection on the fate of the human race.
The English school of painting in the 18th century promotes a galaxy of talented artists and occupies one of the first places in Europe. This is the realist William Hogarth (1697-1764) - a cycle of paintings "Mota's Career", "Fashionable Marriage", "Shrimp Saleswoman", "Self-Portrait" and others. Among portrait painters, a special place belonged to Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792).
The greatest English painter was Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), a master of portrait and landscape. Its color, built on a combination of cold bluish-silver, olive-gray, pearl tones, captivates with nobility and harmony ("The Blue Boy", "Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort"). In rural landscapes, the artist conveyed various states of nature, anticipating the art of the 19th century ("Waterfall"). He also turns to genre scenes ("The Fagot Collectors").
Following Gainsborough, there is a galaxy of English portrait painters: J. Romney (1754-1802), T. Lawrence (1769-1830), G. Rebery (1756-1832) and others.
English architecture of the 18th century continues to stand on the positions of rationalism and classicism: G. Wood (1705-1754), W. Kent (1684-1748), J. Gibbs (1682-1754).
The educational movement found a vivid expression in the science and art of France.
The works of Lesage, Voltaire, Montesquieu ("The Spirit of the Laws"), Rousseau ("Confessions", "On the Foundations and Causes of Inequality among People"), Diderot, D "Alambert and other writers and public figures who were promoters of a new worldview were filled with the spirit of the Enlightenment.
Voltaire (real name François Marie Arouet, 1694-1778) is rightfully considered the head of the French enlighteners. His literary heritage is diverse in genre: epic, philosophical and heroic-comic poems, odes, satires, epigrams, lyric poems: ("Henriada", "The Virgin of Orleans", "Brutus", "Death of Caesar" and others). Of particular importance are philosophical stories, and among them - 4 Candide, or Optimism. "
In the educational literature of France, one of the main places belongs to PO Beaumarchais (1732-1799), the author of the comedies "The Barber of Seville", "The Marriage of Figaro", "The Criminal Mother". It is known that Louis XVI, after listening to "The Marriage of Figaro", exclaimed: "The Bastille must be destroyed in order to allow it to enter the stage!"
In the architecture of France in the 18th century, a new direction is being established - the colorful, elegant, refined rococo (fr. Rococo from rocaille - shell). The tendency towards grandiose ensembles is lost. A town house, a small mansion, light-flooded aristocratic salons and boudoirs become the backdrop for private life.
A typical example of Rococo is the interior of the Soubise Hotel, architect Germaine Boffran (1667-1754). The oval hall of the hotel is distinguished by its graceful forms and unconstrained grace. Furniture - elegantly carved console tables, comfortable soft armchairs, sofas with flexible fancy outlines of backs and legs.
In the mid-1750s, the austerity and serenity of antique order architecture attracted the attention of architects. This direction was headed by the Academy. Classicism became fashionable at court. J.-A. Gabriel (1699-1782) designed the area of \u200b\u200bLouis XVI in Paris (now the Place de la Concorde), and decided in a new way the theme of the country palace (the Petit Trianon). Public buildings are constructed by J.-J. Souflo (1713-1780).
Rococo tendencies spread in painting (plafonds, panels, tapestries on mythological subjects, gallant themes, pastoral genre, idealized portrait). At the same time, the realistic orientation is strengthening.
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) was the creator of the gallant genre, intimate painting, and the singer of subtle emotional movements and feelings. He confirmed the role of contemporary themes in art. His art often took on a romantic tint. Watteau turned to images from the people ("The Grinder", "The Basque Peasant", "Savoyard"), at the same time he portrayed secular ladies and gentlemen, the world of theater ("Love on the Italian Stage", "Love on the French Tutorial"), holidays nobles ("Gallant Festivities", "Society in the Park"). Famous paintings by Watteau: "Gilles", "Capricious Woman" and others.
The representative of the mature Rococo style was François Boucher (1703-1770), the first painter of Louis XV, a favorite of the aristocracy, author of decorative panels, scenery, costumes, paintings on mythological themes ("The Toilet of Venus"), pastorals, etc.
The realistic direction was represented by Jean Baptiste Chaden (1699-1779). His central theme is still life, in which he achieved significance and meaningfulness, reflecting the world of household, inhabited by a person things that have become part of the intimate sphere of feelings and thoughts. These are "Attributes of Art", "Copper Tank and others. Charlie also refers to the genre (" House of Cards "," Prayer Before Dinner "), to the portrait (" Self-portrait "), revealing everywhere the poetic charm of the ordinary.
Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805) - "Country Bride", "Portrait of a Young Man" and others turned to the image of a sensitive person, inspired by the ideas of Rousseau.
Jean Oporet Fragonard (1732-1806) was a brilliant master of drawing and subtle colorist. He combines decorative elegance with a poetic perception of the world ("Swing", "Secret Kiss", "Portrait of Diderot" and others).
The 18th century in France was marked by the development of sculpture. This is the decoration of Rococo interiors, and monumentality, and the desire for realism. The work of Etienne Maurice Falconet (1716-1791), invited by Peter I to St. Petersburg and famous for the "Bronze Horseman" (1766-1782), is significant.
The revolutionary ideas of the 18th century in France are associated with the work of Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the creator of the civil portrait (Rousseau, Mirabeau, Washington, masterpiece - portrait of Voltaire).
The 18th century in Germany found its embodiment in philosophical thought, predominantly idealistic. Its outstanding representatives: Kant (1724-1804), Fichte (1762-1814), the pinnacle of German classical philosophy Hegel (1770-1831).
The German Enlightenment has given the world wonderful examples of fiction - "The Suffering of Young Werther", "Wilhelm Meister" by Goethe; philosophical lyrics - "To the Joy" by Schiller, "Gaiimed" by Goethe, drama - the tragedy "Emilia Galotti" Lessing, "Robbers", "Deceit and Love" by Schiller, poetry "Storm and Onslaught" and others.
But all the best, the most significant that was in the German Enlightenment of the 18th century, was embodied in the immortal work "Faust", created by Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832), an epic tragedy on which he worked for over 60 years. The work is based on the dispute between the scientist Faust, the seeker of truth, and Mephistopheles, symbolizing the spirit of denial and destruction. Faust believes that man will always be characterized by eternal dissatisfaction with what has been achieved. Mephistopheles asserts the opposite: a person will prefer perpetual motion to momentary pleasures, base pleasures.
As a result, Faust comes to understand that the purpose of life is in the struggle for the best ideals of mankind, for the good of the people. This is the truth that he has been looking for for so long, and it is beautiful.
Life years
It was not for nothing: it is clear to me
The final conclusion of earthly wisdom:
Only he is worthy of life and freedom,
Who goes for them every day!
With this thought, Faust dies, he is confident in the immortality of human activity in the name of the "free land", "free people".
The answer to the question, what is the meaning of life (after all, it ends in death), the author gives in the words of Horus Mysticus (a chorus of incomprehensible truths): the goal of happiness is in striving for a goal ("The endless goal here is in achievement"). A person lives to create, to create.
This was the essence of the great era of the Enlightenment, full of faith in the strength and power of Man, his mind, his will.
