"Roman law" - To the first belonged mainly land, slaves, draft animals. Both political and civil rights were the property of men. The seller could limit himself to silence, which was considered a sign of consent. The definition of property rights was given by Roman lawyers. Roman law. Mancipation was carried out as follows.
"Ancient Roman Art" - Octavian Augustus of Prima Porta. The statue of Marcus Aurelius is a bronze ancient Roman statue. The figure of a man of mature age. Guy Julius Caesar. Landscape sketches are increasingly common in fresco paintings. In the 4-5 centuries. the collapse of the Roman Empire took place. Bronze statue of Aulus Metellus from the Florence Museum. Fine arts of Ancient Rome.
"Philosophy of Ancient Rome" - To acquaint listeners with Ancient Roman literature and philosophy. Yes, I remembered, though not without sin, Two verses from the Aeneid. Target. Stoicism. Juvenal has earned the fame of one of the irreconcilable and harsh satirists. Seneca became a prominent representative of stoicism. So, Ancient Rome made a huge contribution to the development of literature and philosophy.
"Gods of Rome" - 1. What is freedom? Through serving people (Mark 12: 39-41). 9. The freedom of Christ makes a person able to enjoy God. 4. Why does God set man free? A free Christian is bound by the Word of God, knowledge of Truth, growth in Christ, etc. The word that gives life! 8. The freedom of Christ gives eternal life!
"Education in Ancient Rome" - Educational centers. Studying programs. School canon. Child's education. Grammar school. The education system in ancient Rome. Training programs in rhetorical schools. Traditions of Greek culture. Romans. Practical focus. Private fee-paying schools. Roman civilization. Educational process.
"The Art of Ancient Rome" - The most valuable thing - the city treasury - was kept here. 497 BC Rome. The colonnade of the Ionic order is the best preserved. The Forum has been rebuilt several times over the course of several centuries. Trajan's Column. Architecture of Ancient Rome. Roman forum -. from the 4th century. BC. the center of the city's business and social life.
There are 19 presentations in total
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Inseparably linked with the life of Rome and the development of its urbanism, the Forum marked significant milestones in the history of the city, uniting in one single place all aspects of social, political and economic life. The Forum, stretching over an area of about 500 meters between the Palatine, Capitol and Esquiline hills, at the very beginning of its existence was a huge swamp, drained by the construction of a whole network of canals (one of which was the famous Cloaca Maximus), where all the waters flowing into the Tiber were collected. It seems that the name of the Forum, born as a place for shopping arcades,
Ideal reconstruction of the Roman Forum (Palatino Directorate).
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when separate settlements still existed on various hills, it came from the word "foras", that is, a place outside the residential center. After the unification of the city into a single whole, the Forum became the ideal center (and almost a geographical pivot) of Rome. From that moment on, trading activity began to gradually move to other places, and along the entire Forum, densely built up with temples dedicated to the cult of the main deities and the famous deified Romans, basilicas, places of trials and commercial transactions, the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, stretches along which in the days festivities, solemn processions moved and victorious troops marched in triumph. The forum is interesting for its Comicium, where people gathered to select judges, the Curia, in which the Senate sat, as well as arches, trophies and columns in memory of outstanding events. Among the trophies, the famous rostra of enemy ships that were defeated in battle, which adorned the rostrum of dei Rostri, deserve special attention. From her
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orators spoke, drawing the crowd: from here Cicero spoke against Catiline, and Antony moved the Romans with his eulogy on Caesar's death. But moments of splendor were followed by a gradual decline, and at first the Forum had to give way to new forums of the era of the empire, after which, together with the entire Roman civilization, shaken by the invasions of barbarians, it plunged into the darkness of the long Middle Ages. In the last century, however, an interest in archeology arose and systematic excavations began. Of the numerous finds of the Forum, we will have to limit ourselves to only those
Relief with figures of Roman dignitaries (Roman Forum).
which perfectly characterize its three fundamentally important aspects: political, judicial and administrative and religious. However, it would be unfair not to mention its decorative elements, such as the triumphal arches of Tiberius and Septimius Severus, a huge number of statues, columns, as well as chapels, shops, fountains and other less significant structures.
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It was erected in 203 AD. in honor of the Emperor Septimius Severus and his children Caracalla and Geta. This massive three-span arch, 23 meters wide, is one of the largest memorial arches in existence. The inscription on both sides of the attic reminds of the victories of Septimius Severus in wars, including over school desks and Arabs. Episodes from these Arch of Septimius Severus (Roman Forum). Wars are carved in bas-relief over the arched vaults, while captive barbarians are depicted at the base of the columns.
Arch of Septimius Severus
Arch of Septimius Severus (Roman Forum).
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From this one, which was one of the most grandiose basilicas of the republican era, only a few decorative elements remained, broken columns, capitals, parts of pediments and entablatures. The basilica was built near Curia in 179 BC. the censors Mark Emilius Lepidus and Mark Fulvius Nobilor; later the basilica was expanded and completed by other representatives of the Emilian family. The basilica was of considerable size. For example, the side facing the Forum consisted of an arched gallery over 100 meters long.
Inside, the basilica was divided into a number of rooms, the largest of which was a hall, which probably served for popular gatherings, and outside it was surrounded by a colonnade of African and veined marble.
Ruins of the Basalica Emilia (Roman Forum).
Basilica Emilia
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Legend has it that the Curia was founded during the era of Tulla Ostilius. It burned several times and was reconstructed both during the period of the Republic and during the era of the Empire. It was the seat of the Senate until the 8th century, when Pope Honorius I turned it into a church. The restoration work carried out at the beginning of this century returned the Curia to the original simplicity of its exterior and interior, consisting of a single rectangular hall with a marble inlaid floor.
Curia (Roman Forum).
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Erected by the Senate in AD 141 in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, deified after death. Later it was dedicated to the emperor himself. From the temple remained Corinthian columns, supporting an amazingly painted entablature. In the 11th century, the temple was converted into a Christian church dedicated to San Lorenzo in Miranda and rebuilt in the 17th century.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (Roman Forum).
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In this building lived six priestesses who worship the goddess of the family hearth Vesta, who were chosen by the High Priest Maximus from twenty female representatives burning with holy fire. The Vestals remained in the house for thirty years, taking a vow of celibacy and keeping the fire in the hearth, which was their main occupation, and if they disobeyed, they were buried alive. They put bread and an icon lamp in the grave with them.
House of the Vestals
The garden of the house of the Vestals.
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For some of them, due to their diligence and their high moral character, memorial statues were erected, which still stand along a long corridor, which, with three bathrooms in the center, was surrounded by a two-tiered colonnade.
Vestal Statue
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It was believed that this temple was erected by Maxentius for the son of Romulus, who died as a child in 307 AD, but it is probably about the temple of the Penates, built on the site of a previously destroyed temple, on the ruins of which a large basilica was built. Most of the temple was preserved thanks to the transformation into an atrium of the Church of Saints Cosmas and Damian (VI century AD). Still. you can admire the characteristic central chapel with a domed roof with an arched façade with two chapels and apses on the sides. Time has also preserved an ancient bronze entrance door with a lock from that era.
Temple of Romulus
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Temple of Castor and Pollux. It was erected in 484 BC. It was a place of not only religious, but also important political significance: on July 15 of every year, horsemen rode here in front of the censors, and the judges taking office took an oath of allegiance to the law. Unfortunately, only the foundation (50x30 meters) and three wonderful Corinthian columns with a height of over 12 meters remain of the building at the present time, which are probably the most famous columns in the entire Roman Forum because of their slenderness, grandeur and elegance.
Temple of Castor and Pollux and Temple of Vesta
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Temple of Vesta. This temple was one of the most revered in Rome, as Vesta was the goddess of the family hearth and fire, the holy symbol of the continuity of the state. It was repeatedly burned and restored. Evidence of the last restoration carried out at the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. at the behest of Septimius Sever's wife, Julia Domna, the remains of a building that have survived to this day are revealed. The original circular structure of the temple mimicked the shape of an Italic thatch and wood hut, with a conical roof and a hole in the center for the release of smoke.
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It was started by Maxentius, and completed and modified by Constantine, after he defeated Maxentius in the battle on the Tiber at the Ponte Milvio bridge in 213 AD. At first, Maxentius conceived a basilica with three naves, of which the central one was wider than the two side naves and had a cruciform roof, and the other two had a barrel roof. The building was 100 meters long and 60 meters wide, reaching a height of 35 meters in the central nave. Constantine changed the structure of the basilica, opening the apse with a niche in the right nave and displacing the central entrance.
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It rises at the top of the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, not far from the Forum exit. It was erected after the death of Emperor Titus in 81 AD, in memory of his suppression of the Jewish uprising of 66-70. Indeed, in the inscription on the Arch Titus is called "Divus", as the Romans called the kings and emperors who distinguished themselves during their lifetime, who were elevated to the rank of demigods after the Arch of Titasdeath. The graceful single-span arch was built in the 1st century A.D.
Arch of Titus
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The arch is 15.40 m high, 13.50 m wide and 4.75 m deep. The central part, erected on a high plinth, is decorated with Corinthian semi-columns supporting a frieze depicting the emperor's triumph. In the corners near the span, four winged Victoria's are carved. Inside the span there are two amazing bas-reliefs depicting, the first is a triumphal procession with the spoils of war captured during the destruction of the Jerusalem temple, and the second is of the emperor Titus, who is in charge of the quadriga.
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The Palatine Hill, bounded by the small valleys of the Roman Forum and the ancient lists of Circus Maximus, according to legend, owes its name to "Pales", the goddess of the shepherds, in whose honor the "Palilias", the feasts of purification, arranged since the formation of Rome, were held. And if the Romans associated with the Palatine the place where Romulus built the city, then everyone knows the fact that this hill is the cradle of Rome, since the oldest settlements in Rome were discovered on it. In the era of the Republic, temples and houses of noble Romans stood on this hill, including the abode of Crassus and Cicero, and during the empire it was the residence of the emperors and the richest houses of antiquity stood here.
Octagonal labyrinth fountain (Domitian's palace)
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"It was one of the most beautiful creations in the world," wrote the poet Martial of this structure, whose name means "house of the emperor." The first works were carried out under Domitian (end of the 1st century AD), and then the house was expanded and completed by other emperors, who continued to live in it for several centuries. In the Middle Ages, the house became part of other structures, and later, in the 16th century, with the construction of the Villa dei Farnese and degli Orti Farneziani, the Farnesian vegetable gardens, it turned into a grandiose park that still exists today.
Domus Augustana
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The "House of Flavians" was built for himself by Domitian towards the end of the 1st century AD. The house included a large basilica with three naves, a royal hall, a "lararium" and a leristil. In the center of the garden there was a large fountain in the shape of an octagonal labyrinth.
Palazzo deo Flavi
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The Great Palatine Racecourse is 160 meters long and 50 meters wide. The wall structures were made of fired bricks with marble cladding. The stadium was surrounded by a portico; on one of its sides there was a tribune, from which the emperor watched the shows and performances of gymnasts.
Stadium racetrack
Hippodrome Domitian
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Between the hills of Esquilines, Caelius and Palatine, the Flavius amphitheater, called the Colosseum, rises majestically, the construction of which began under the Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD. in the place where previously there was an artificial lake of the magnificent palace of Nero called "The Golden House". Tradition says that the Romans were very pleased with the construction of this new monumental structure, because they did not like the luxurious house of the tyrant, who obstructed traffic and was an obstacle to entering the Forums. In addition, from the point of view of urban development and aesthetics, the Colosseum complemented the perspective of the Forum as well as possible and became, its bulk, a connecting link and an ideal place
view of the Colosseum from the Palatine Hill
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a passage to the majestic monuments of the towering hills behind it. In the 60th year, under Titus Flavius, the son of the emperor Vespasian, a magnificent opening ceremony took place, on the occasion of which a hundred-day games were announced, during which several thousand gladiators fought and a large number of animals were hunted. Completed largely under the Emperor Domitian and restored in the era of Septimius Severus, the Colosseum continued to be a symbol of the greatness and power of Rome for many centuries. And, indeed, there is not a single printed work, be it print, drawing or painting, where the Colosseum does not appear, towering over other majestic ruins. In 246, under the emperor Decius, during the celebration of the millennium of Rome, the Colosseum was a theater of magnificent shows, where, according to the memoirs of that era, 32 elephants, 60 lions, 40 wild horses and dozens of other animals were killed, and among them, moose, zebras , tigers, giraffes and hippos. There were also bloody battles of about 2,000 gladiators, which was probably the most beloved sight of the Romans. As for the mass martyrdom of Christians, it has not yet been historically proven. The gladiatorial battles ended by 404, while the bestial battles continued and were stopped only in the last years of the 6th century. Repeatedly the amphitheater was destroyed by strong earthquakes.
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Later, the Roman families dei Frangipane and degliAnnibaldi turned it into their fortress, until, by order of Arrigo VII, the Colosseum became the property of the Romans. In the centuries that followed, the Colosseum began to decline; huge blocks of travertine were removed and taken out for the construction of other palaces: Palazzo Cancelleria, Palazzo Venezia and the same Cathedral of St. Peter. And finally, in 1750, Benedict XIV, proclaimed the Colosseum a holy place, since it was, according to the then prevailing opinion, the place of death "for Christ" of numerous martyrs of pagan Rome
model of the reconstruction of the Colosseum, stored in the amphitheater
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OUTSIDE - In plan, the amphitheater is elliptical, 188 meters long, 156 meters wide and 57 meters high. The construction of the Colosseum lasted 10 years and fell on the reign of three emperors from the Flavian family: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The name of the architect who owns the project of the amphitheater is unknown, but it is assumed that he was Rabirius, who later became the author of Domitian's palace. Outside, the amphitheater is entirely covered with travertine and has four tiers. The three lower ones represent arched chants running along the entire profile, cut by pilasters and semi-columns in the canonical sequence: on the first tier - Doric, on the second - Ionic, and on the third - Corinthian. The fourth, upper tier, completed a little later, is a solid wall, dissected by Corinthian pilasters and cut through by small windows. On the crowning cornice, there are still holes, where supports were inserted to tension the bright awning, which protects the audience from the heat.
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Each arched span of the first tier had a corresponding entrance to the seats for spectators: 76 of these entrances were numbered (Roman numerals can still be seen on the arches); The four main entrances were intended: one for the imperial retinue, the other for the Vestals, the third for the judges, and the last for the guests of honor. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have survived to this day. When, in the Middle Ages, the Colosseum became something of a giant public quarry, all the metal braces of the day of joining travertine blocks were removed, leaving behind still visible holes. On the platform in front of the amphitheater there was a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus; It is believed that the name Colosseum - large, colossal - originated just from this colossus.
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INSIDE - The amphitheater accommodated about 50,000-70,000 spectators, seated on its steps, depending on the class of social class. There were three categories of places: the "podium", falling into the first category, where the representatives of the highest class sat and where the emperor's box was located; the second category of places, in the center, reserved for "civis", citizens belonging to the middle class; and the third, "sum", where the people were accommodated. There was probably also a fourth category of seats reserved for women. Under the arena, there was a whole system of cells, galleries, storage rooms, dressing rooms and basements, which have now appeared thanks to the excavations carried out. We are talking about a number of rooms where various objects and mechanisms were kept and where animals were kept before and after the shows, the main types of which were gladiator fights ("ludi") and "venationes", hunting for animals; but in the arena there were also magicians' performances, sports competitions, equestrian tournaments and sea battles - navmachias. The games were held on the occasion of significant dates, annual holidays and extraordinary events. In some cases, this happened on the birthdays of the emperor and the celebration of historical events, and in others - as a result of triumph or victory. It should be said that the funeral was also the reason for this kind of games.
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In the announcements (edicts) issued on this occasion, the order of the games, the reason for which they were arranged and the day they began were indicated. On such days, with the help of a complex mechanism and the use of a large selected labor force, a huge multicolored awning of silk and linen was raised over the steps.
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Tradition says that Circus was built by Tarquinius Prisco at the site of the famous abduction of the Sabine women. Circus stretches over an area of over 600 meters in the hollow between the Aventine and Palatine hills, once called the Valley of Murcia. The circus was the largest in Rome, and all other similar structures were built on its model. The circus held about 200,000 spectators and was the ideal venue for the chariot and quadriga competitions, which took place fifty times a year until 549, in which, under Totila, the last competitions took place. The wall dividing the Circus longitudinally was called the "back", and its two ends were called "mete". The "back" was decorated with architectural elements of various origins, with the Egyptian obelisk towering among them, the one that currently stands in Piazza del Popolo. At first, the stands were made of wood; after which, due to repeated flaring fires, they were replaced by stone ones. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar, in order to commemorate victories in Africa, organized a grandiose celebration here, ending with an imitation of a battle, in which 1000 infantrymen, 600 horsemen and 40 elephants took part.
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The first version of the Pantheon was built in 27-25. BC e. Emperor Agrippa. Agrippa's pantheon burned down in a fire in 80. In 125, the emperor Hadrian built a new building for the Pantheon, completely reconstructing it. Outside, the Pantheon is a huge cylindrical volume, to which is attached a deep portico with sixteen Corinthian columns of twelve meters in length, carved from Aswan granite. Niches were made in the walls of the portico, intended for statues of gods or emperors. The pediment was once adorned with a bronze sculpture depicting the battle of the titans. In ancient times, the Pantheon was entered through the triumphal arch that stood on its square. Inside the Pantheonim, there is a two-tiered wall with columns and niches, cut through by vaulted arches. The dome rests on the second, smaller and flatter tier. From the inside, the dome is covered with five rows of promising caissons (square depressions), and at the top it ends with a nine-meter opening - the oculus.
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The proportions of the Pantheon are carefully calibrated. Its height is about 44 m, the same is the diameter of the circle lying at the base. This means that the Pantheon (without a portico) fits perfectly into a cube, and a sphere can also be inscribed into it. The dome of the Pantheon is the largest dome of antiquity and remained the largest in Europe until in 1436 the architect Brunelleschi finished work on the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. The vault of the Pantheon weighs 5 thousand tons. Its thickness ranges from 6.4 m at the base to 1.2 m around the oculus. The weight of the giant hemisphere is supported by eight powerful six-meter-thick pillars. The inner surface of the dome symbolizes the sky, and the oculus crowning it is the symbol of the sun. The oculus is the only hole in the entire building to let in sunlight. It also serves for air conditioning and ventilation. In 609, the Byzantine emperor Phoca consecrated the Pantheon, which has since become (and still is) a Christian temple. This partly saved the Pantheon from oblivion and plundering, which was the fate of most of the ancient Roman architectural structures.
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Since the Renaissance, the Pantheon has been used as a burial vault. Such famous personalities as Raphael, Annibale Caracci and others are buried here. The external marble facing of the Pantheon has not survived. Some of the capitals are currently in the British Museum in London. The marble facing of the interior has survived to this day, as well as the colossal bronze doors leading from the portico to the interior of the temple. Once upon a time the doors were gilded, but over time the gilding has worn out. In the XVII century. by order of Pope Urban VIII, the bronze ceiling of the portico was melted down into cannons. It was then that the saying arose in Rome: Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini (“What the barbarians failed to do, Barberini did.” architects from the Renaissance to the 19th century City halls, universities, public libraries and other buildings bear the imprint of its portico-domed structure, including the British Museum Reading Room in London, the Jefferson Rotunda at the University of Virginia, State Library of Victoria in Melbourne, etc.
The concrete construction technique was invented a millennium earlier in the Middle East, but the Romans expanded its scope and made it the main method of construction. Advantages: durable and plastic, it was he who made it possible to create grandiose architectural structures, which to this day remain monuments of the "former greatness of Rome."
Sanctuary of Fortune the Firstborn in Palestrina, in the spurs of the Apennine mountains, east of Rome. The oldest architectural monument is the sanctuary of Fortune the Firstborn in Palestrina, in the spurs of the Apennine mountains, east of Rome. Here, in the Etruscan citadel, which was once of great importance, since ancient times there has existed an unusual cult of Fortune (the goddess of fate) as the original deity in combination with the famous oracle located right there. Sanctuary of the Firstborn Fortune (Primigenia). (1st century BC)
The columns of all three classic orders are placed one above the other in accordance with their inherent "weight". The increase in lightness of proportions is barely perceptible; all these orders in their Roman interpretation look almost the same. Doric columns Ionic columns Corinthian columns
Built at the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. the basilicas of Constantine were predecessors. The first such buildings appeared in Greece during the Hellenistic period. These were public buildings intended for various purposes with a rather long rectangular hall inside. Under Roman rule, such buildings became typical for every major city; they were used mainly for holding court sessions. Courts administering justice on behalf of the emperor were to be housed in a dignified room.
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Inseparably linked with the life of Rome and the development of its urbanism, the Forum marked significant milestones in the history of the city, uniting in one single place all aspects of social, political and economic life. The Forum, stretching over an area of about 500 meters between the Palatine, Capitol and Esquiline hills, at the very beginning of its existence was a huge swamp, drained by the construction of a whole network of canals (one of which was the famous Cloaca Maximus), where all the waters flowing into the Tiber were collected. It seems that the name of the Forum, which was born as a place for a shopping arcade, Roman Forum Ideal reconstruction of the Roman Forum (Directorate of Palatino).
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when separate settlements still existed on various hills, it came from the word "foras", that is, a place outside the residential center. After the unification of the city into a single whole, the Forum became the ideal center (and almost a geographical pivot) of Rome. From that moment on, trading activity began to gradually move to other places, and along the entire Forum, densely built up with temples dedicated to the cult of the main deities and the famous deified Romans, basilicas, places of trials and commercial transactions, the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, stretches along which in the days festivities, solemn processions moved and victorious troops marched in triumph. The forum is interesting for its Comicium, where people gathered to select judges, the Curia, in which the Senate sat, as well as arches, trophies and columns in memory of outstanding events. Among the trophies, the famous rostra of enemy ships that were defeated in battle, which adorned the rostrum of dei Rostri, deserve special attention. From her Roman Forum
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orators spoke, drawing the crowd: from here Cicero spoke against Catiline, and Antony moved the Romans with his eulogy on Caesar's death. But moments of splendor were followed by a gradual decline, and at first the Forum had to give way to new forums of the era of the empire, after which, together with the entire Roman civilization, shaken by the invasions of barbarians, it plunged into the darkness of the long Middle Ages. In the last century, however, an interest in archeology arose and systematic excavations began. Of the numerous finds of the Forum, we will have to restrict ourselves to only those Relief with figures of Roman dignitaries (Roman Forum). which perfectly characterize its three fundamentally important aspects: political, judicial and administrative and religious. However, it would be unfair not to mention its decorative elements, such as the triumphal arches of Tiberius and Septimius Severus, a huge number of statues, columns, as well as chapels, shops, fountains and other less significant structures.
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It was erected in 203 AD. in honor of the Emperor Septimius Severus and his children Caracalla and Geta. This massive three-span arch, 23 meters wide, is one of the largest memorial arches in existence. The inscription on both sides of the attic reminds of the victories of Septimius Severus in wars, including over school desks and Arabs. Episodes from these Arch of Septimius Severus (Roman Forum). Wars are carved in bas-relief over the arched vaults, while captive barbarians are depicted at the base of the columns. Roman Forum Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Septimius Severus (Roman Forum).
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Roman Forum From this one, which was one of the most grandiose basilicas of the Republican era, there are only a few decorative elements, broken columns, capitals, parts of pediments and entablatures. The basilica was built near Curia in 179 BC. the censors Mark Emilius Lepidus and Mark Fulvius Nobilor; later the basilica was expanded and completed by other representatives of the Emilian family. The basilica was of considerable size. For example, the side facing the Forum consisted of an arched gallery over 100 meters long. Inside, the basilica was divided into a number of rooms, the largest of which was a hall, which probably served for popular gatherings, and outside it was surrounded by a colonnade of African and veined marble. Ruins of the Basalica Emilia (Roman Forum). Basilica Emilia
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Legend has it that the Curia was founded during the era of Tulla Ostilius. It burned several times and was reconstructed both during the period of the Republic and during the era of the Empire. It was the seat of the Senate until the 8th century, when Pope Honorius I turned it into a church. The restoration work carried out at the beginning of this century returned the Curia to the original simplicity of its exterior and interior, consisting of a single rectangular hall with a marble inlaid floor. Curia Roman Forum Curia (Roman Forum).
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Erected by the Senate in AD 141 in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, deified after death. Later it was dedicated to the emperor himself. From the temple remained Corinthian columns, supporting an amazingly painted entablature. In the 11th century, the temple was converted into a Christian church dedicated to San Lorenzo in Miranda and rebuilt in the 17th century. Roman Forum Temple of Antonin and Faustina Temple of Antonin and Faustina (Roman Forum).
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Roman Forum In this building lived six priestesses who worship the goddess of the family hearth Vesta, who were chosen by the High Priest Maximus from twenty women who burned with holy fire. The Vestals remained in the house for thirty years, taking a vow of celibacy and keeping the fire in the hearth, which was their main occupation, and if they disobeyed, they were buried alive. They put bread and an icon lamp in the grave with them. House of the Vestals The garden of the house of the Vestals.
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For some of them, due to their diligence and their high moral character, memorial statues were erected, which still stand along a long corridor, which, with three bathrooms in the center, was surrounded by a two-tiered colonnade. Roman Forum House of the Vestals Statue of the Vestals
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It was believed that this temple was erected by Maxentius for the son of Romulus, who died as a child in 307 AD, but it is probably about the temple of the Penates, built on the site of a previously destroyed temple, on the ruins of which a large basilica was built. Most of the temple was preserved thanks to the transformation into an atrium of the Church of Saints Cosmas and Damian (VI century AD). Still. you can admire the characteristic central chapel with a domed roof with an arched façade with two chapels and apses on the sides. Time has also preserved an ancient bronze entrance door with a lock from that era. Temple of Romulus Roman Forum
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Temple of Castor and Pollux. It was erected in 484 BC. It was a place of not only religious, but also important political significance: on July 15 of every year, horsemen rode here in front of the censors, and the judges taking office took an oath of allegiance to the law. Unfortunately, only the foundation (50x30 meters) and three wonderful Corinthian columns with a height of over 12 meters remain of the building at the present time, which are probably the most famous columns in the entire Roman Forum because of their slenderness, grandeur and elegance. Roman Forum Temple of Castor and Pollux and Temple of Vesta
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Temple of Vesta. This temple was one of the most revered in Rome, as Vesta was the goddess of the family hearth and fire, the holy symbol of the continuity of the state. It was repeatedly burned and restored. Evidence of the last restoration carried out at the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. at the behest of Septimius Sever's wife, Julia Domna, the remains of a building that have survived to this day are revealed. The original circular structure of the temple mimicked the shape of an Italic thatch and wood hut, with a conical roof and a hole in the center for the release of smoke. Roman Forum Temple of Castor and Pollux and Temple of Vesta
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It was started by Maxentius, and completed and modified by Constantine, after he defeated Maxentius in the battle on the Tiber at the Ponte Milvio bridge in 213 AD. At first, Maxentius conceived a basilica with three naves, of which the central one was wider than the two side naves and had a cruciform roof, and the other two had a barrel roof. The building was 100 meters long and 60 meters wide, reaching a height of 35 meters in the central nave. Constantine changed the structure of the basilica, opening the apse with a niche in the right nave and displacing the central entrance. Basilica of Maxentius Roman Forum
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It rises at the top of the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, not far from the Forum exit. It was erected after the death of Emperor Titus in 81 AD, in memory of his suppression of the Jewish uprising of 66-70. Indeed, in the inscription on the Arch Titus is called "Divus", as the Romans called the kings and emperors who distinguished themselves during their lifetime, who were elevated to the rank of demigods after the Arch of Titasdeath. The graceful single-span arch was built in the 1st century AD. Roman Forum Arch of Titus Arch of Titus
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The arch is 15.40 m high, 13.50 m wide and 4.75 m deep. The central part, erected on a high plinth, is decorated with Corinthian semi-columns supporting a frieze depicting the emperor's triumph. In the corners near the span, four winged Victoria's are carved. Inside the span there are two amazing bas-reliefs depicting, the first is a triumphal procession with the spoils of war captured during the destruction of the Jerusalem temple, and the second is of the emperor Titus, who is in charge of the quadriga. Arch of Titus Roman Forum
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The Palatine Hill, bounded by the small valleys of the Roman Forum and the ancient lists of Circus Maximus, according to legend, owes its name to "Pales", the goddess of the shepherds, in whose honor the "Palilias", the feasts of purification, arranged since the formation of Rome, were held. And if the Romans associated with the Palatine the place where Romulus built the city, then everyone knows the fact that this hill is the cradle of Rome, since the oldest settlements in Rome were discovered on it. In the era of the Republic, temples and houses of noble Romans stood on this hill, including the abode of Crassus and Cicero, and during the empire it was the residence of the emperors and the richest houses of antiquity stood here. Stole Octagonal labyrinth fountain (Domitian's palace)
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"It was one of the most beautiful creations in the world," wrote the poet Martial of this structure, whose name means "house of the emperor." The first works were carried out under Domitian (end of the 1st century AD), and then the house was expanded and completed by other emperors, who continued to live in it for several centuries. In the Middle Ages, the house became part of other structures, and later, in the 16th century, with the construction of the Villa dei Farnese and degli Orti Farneziani, the Farnesian vegetable gardens, it turned into a grandiose park that still exists today. Domus Augustana Palantin
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The "House of Flavians" was built for himself by Domitian towards the end of the 1st century AD. The house included a large basilica with three naves, a royal hall, a "lararium" and a leristil. In the center of the garden there was a large fountain in the shape of an octagonal labyrinth. Palatine Palazzo deo Flavi
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The Great Palatine Racecourse is 160 meters long and 50 meters wide. The wall structures were made of fired bricks with marble cladding. The stadium was surrounded by a portico; on one of its sides there was a tribune, from which the emperor watched the shows and performances of gymnasts. Stole Hippodrome Stadium Domitian Hippodrome
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Between the hills of Esquilines, Caelius and Palatine, the Flavius amphitheater, called the Colosseum, rises majestically, the construction of which began under the Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD. in the place where previously there was an artificial lake of the magnificent palace of Nero called "The Golden House". Tradition says that the Romans were very pleased with the construction of this new monumental structure, because they did not like the luxurious house of the tyrant, who obstructed traffic and was an obstacle to entering the Forums. In addition, from the point of view of urban development and aesthetics, the Colosseum complemented the perspective of the Forum as well as possible and became, its bulk, a connecting link and an ideal place Colosseum view of the Colosseum from the Palatine hill
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a passage to the majestic monuments of the towering hills behind it. In the 60th year, under Titus Flavius, the son of the emperor Vespasian, a magnificent opening ceremony took place, on the occasion of which a hundred-day games were announced, during which several thousand gladiators fought and a large number of animals were hunted. Completed largely under the Emperor Domitian and restored in the era of Septimius Severus, the Colosseum continued to be a symbol of the greatness and power of Rome for many centuries. And, indeed, there is not a single printed work, be it print, drawing or painting, where the Colosseum does not appear, towering over other majestic ruins. In 246, under the emperor Decius, during the celebration of the millennium of Rome, the Colosseum was a theater of magnificent shows, where, according to the memoirs of that era, 32 elephants, 60 lions, 40 wild horses and dozens of other animals were killed, and among them, moose, zebras , tigers, giraffes and hippos. There were also bloody battles of about 2,000 gladiators, which was probably the most beloved sight of the Romans. As for the mass martyrdom of Christians, it has not yet been historically proven. The gladiatorial battles ended by 404, while the bestial battles continued and were stopped only in the last years of the 6th century. Repeatedly the amphitheater was destroyed by strong earthquakes. Coliseum
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Later, the Roman families dei Frangipane and degliAnnibaldi turned it into their fortress, until, by order of Arrigo VII, the Colosseum became the property of the Romans. In the centuries that followed, the Colosseum began to decline; huge blocks of travertine were removed and taken out for the construction of other palaces: Palazzo Cancelleria, Palazzo Venezia and the same Cathedral of St. Peter. And finally, in 1750, Benedict XIV, proclaimed the Colosseum a holy place, since it was, according to the then prevailing opinion, the place of death "for Christ" of numerous martyrs of pagan Rome Colosseum model of reconstruction of the Colosseum, kept in the amphitheater
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OUTSIDE - In plan, the amphitheater is elliptical, 188 meters long, 156 meters wide and 57 meters high. The construction of the Colosseum lasted 10 years and fell on the reign of three emperors from the Flavian family: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The name of the architect who owns the project of the amphitheater is unknown, but it is assumed that he was Rabirius, who later became the author of Domitian's palace. Outside, the amphitheater is entirely covered with travertine and has four tiers. The three lower ones represent arched chants running along the entire profile, cut by pilasters and semi-columns in the canonical sequence: on the first tier - Doric, on the second - Ionic, and on the third - Corinthian. The fourth, upper tier, completed a little later, is a solid wall, dissected by Corinthian pilasters and cut through by small windows. On the crowning cornice, there are still holes, where supports were inserted to tension the bright awning, which protects the audience from the heat. Coliseum
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Each arched span of the first tier had a corresponding entrance to the seats for spectators: 76 of these entrances were numbered (Roman numerals can still be seen on the arches); The four main entrances were intended: one for the imperial retinue, the other for the Vestals, the third for the judges, and the last for the guests of honor. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have survived to this day. When, in the Middle Ages, the Colosseum became something of a giant public quarry, all the metal braces of the day of joining travertine blocks were removed, leaving behind still visible holes. On the platform in front of the amphitheater there was a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus; It is believed that the name Colosseum - large, colossal - originated just from this colossus. Coliseum
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INSIDE - The amphitheater accommodated about 50,000-70,000 spectators, seated on its steps, depending on the class of social class. There were three categories of places: the "podium", falling into the first category, where the representatives of the highest class sat and where the emperor's box was located; the second category of places, in the center, reserved for "civis", citizens belonging to the middle class; and the third, "sum", where the people were accommodated. There was probably also a fourth category of seats reserved for women. Under the arena, there was a whole system of cells, galleries, storage rooms, dressing rooms and basements, which have now appeared thanks to the excavations carried out. We are talking about a number of rooms where various objects and mechanisms were kept and where animals were kept before and after the shows, the main types of which were gladiator fights ("ludi") and "venationes", hunting for animals; but in the arena there were also magicians' performances, sports competitions, equestrian tournaments and sea battles - navmachias. The games were held on the occasion of significant dates, annual holidays and extraordinary events. In some cases, this happened on the birthdays of the emperor and the celebration of historical events, and in others - as a result of triumph or victory. It should be said that the funeral was also the reason for this kind of games. Coliseum
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In the announcements (edicts) issued on this occasion, the order of the games, the reason for which they were arranged and the day they began were indicated. On such days, with the help of a complex mechanism and the use of a large selected labor force, a huge multicolored awning of silk and linen was raised over the steps. Coliseum
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Purpose: to acquaint students with the architecture of Ancient Rome, the types of buildings and their purpose, to continue to develop the cognitive abilities of students, the ability to work with sources of information, to highlight the main thing, to foster interest, a sense of respect and admiration for ancient Roman construction techniques and architecture.
Equipment:
- multimedia projector,
- multimedia presentation. Annex 1
- individual handouts,
- exhibition on the topic (reproductions, books)
New words: forum (arrangement of architectural structures in a strict order on huge quadrangular squares); aqueducts (water pipes); viaducts (stone bridges); pilasters (flat vertical ledge on the wall surface); caissons (square recesses that divide the hemispherical ceiling of the vault), baths (public baths).
During the classes
I. Organizational moment
The artistic culture of Ancient Rome left a rich heritage to mankind.
The topic of our lesson is “Architectural achievements of Ancient Rome”. In the lesson, we will get acquainted with the architecture of Ancient Rome, the types of buildings and their purpose, building materials and innovations in architecture.
II. New topic
The architecture of Ancient Rome as an original art was formed by the time of the IV-I centuries. BC e. The architectural monuments of Ancient Rome now, even in ruins, conquer with their majesty. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings.
There are three main periods in the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome:
- Etruscan art (7th-4th centuries BC)
- Art of the Roman Republic (4th - 1st centuries BC)
- Art of the Roman Empire (1st - 4th centuries AD)
An important role in the formation of Roman statehood and culture belongs to the Etruscans (tribes living on the territory of modern Tuscany). They were skilled farmers and skilled artisans. They built cities that had a regular layout, cobbled streets), a good sewage system, many temples on stone foundations and palaces. Residential buildings and palaces had a good, comfortable layout: rest rooms, for conversations, entertainment, household purposes. Inside the house there were courtyards - gardens with benches and a fountain, where the owner invited his friends. Temples were built in honor of the gods, for sacrifices to gods and rulers. The Etruscans created their own order - majestic and monumental.
1. Roman Forum.
From the 4th century BC e. the Forum became the center of business and social life in Rome.<Picture 1 >
People's assemblies were held here, the most important issues of war and peace, government were resolved, trade deals were concluded, court proceedings were heard, passions seethed ... There were many buildings, monuments and statues on the territory of the Forum. The most important roads of the state began from the Forum, the main streets of the city converged to it. The forum served as the center of social life, and from the everyday communication of people, thematic communication has evolved, bearing all the signs of what we today call a forum. The most remarkable monument at the Forum was Trajan's 38-meter column<Picture 2>. It is made of 20 blocks of Karara marble, has a height of 38 m (including the pedestal) and a diameter of 4 m. The column is hollow inside: it contains a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to the platform on the capital. The monument weighs about 40 tons. The column's trunk spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. It was originally crowned with an eagle, later with a statue of Trajan. In 1588, Sixtus V replaced her with a statue of the Apostle Peter, which remains on the column to this day. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed.
2. Engineering structures.
Roman architecture has always sought to meet the practical needs of man. The Romans built engineering structures that were new for those times: water pipes (aqueducts) and huge stone bridges (viaducts), inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes that supplied water to the city. The construction of roads is admirable. The famous Appian Way - paved from Rome to Capua, beautifully paved with large, tightly fitted stones<Figure 3 > .
3. Colosseum.
Among the architectural structures of Ancient Rome, spectacular buildings are of particular interest. The largest of them is the Colosseum<Figure 4>. The Colosseum is the most grandiose ancient Roman structure that has survived to this day - a symbol of the glory of the Eternal City, surpassing in size any amphitheater ever built in Rome. Within its walls, the echo of gladiatorial battles was heard, and later, when the stones of the Colosseum were plundered for the construction of medieval churches and palaces, it was replaced by the echo of hammer blows. Today, although dilapidated, the walls of the Colosseum continue to stand, luring thousands of tourists. The Colosseum (originally called the Flavian Amphitheater) was the brainchild of Emperor Vespasian (of the Flavian family), who, in 72, planned to erect a monument in honor of a military triumph in the Middle East.
4. Pantheon.
After the romantic beauty of the ruins of the forum and the grandeur of the Colosseum, the ancient grandeur of the Pantheon most vividly depicts the appearance of the ancient city. Pantheon<Figure 5> - the only one that has survived in Rome to this day, practically intact, the greatest ancient domed structure with a height of 43 m.The Pantheon was built in 128 under Hadrian on the site of a similar temple in 27 BC, erected by Mark Agrippa (the inscription is preserved), but in 110, destroyed by a lightning strike. The Pantheon consists of sixteen Corinthian columns ten meters high, supporting a roof with a triangular pediment. A portico with a gable roof serves as a passage to the central cylindrical structure, which is dissected by niches where the statues of the gods once stood. A circle is inscribed in the interior, the diameter and height of which are the same (43.3 meters). The light enters the interior through the openings in the dome.<Figure 6 >.
The architectural appearance of Ancient Rome cannot be imagined without the triumphal arches erected in honor of the victories of the Romans in military campaigns. The Arc de Triomphe is an architectural monument consisting of large porticoes. Triumphal arches are arranged at the entrance to cities, at the end of streets, on bridges, on highways in honor of winners or in memory of important events.<Figure 7 >.
Among the largest public buildings of ancient Rome, the buildings of the thermae must be called<Figure 8>. There were a great many of them in Rome. They served as a place of recreation and entertainment; visiting them was part of the daily life of the Romans.
III. Consolidation of what was learned in the lesson
Now let's repeat what you learned in the lesson today? What did you like? What do you remember? Tell me what can be seen today from the elements of Roman architecture (arches, vaults)
Conclusion. Roman architecture has left a rich legacy for posterity.
IV. Homework
Ch. 9., art. 94-101. Questions and tasks.
Literature
- Textbook Danilova G.I. World Art. M., Bustard, 2010.
- Sokolov G.I... Art of Ancient Rome. M., 1996.
- Roman art // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional) - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
- ru.wikipedia.org
- mystic-chel.ru
- uchportal. ru
