Specificity, structure and motives of human activity.

Specificity human activities.

Activity can be defined as a specific type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one's existence. In activity, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that did not exist in nature without his activity. The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that thanks to it he goes beyond the limits of his natural limitations, i.e. surpasses its own genotypically determined capabilities. As a result of the productive, creative nature of his activity, man has created sign systems, tools for influencing himself and nature. The historical progress that has taken place over the past several tens of thousands of years owes its origin precisely to activity, and not to the improvement of the biological nature of people.

Modern man lives surrounded by such objects, none of which is a pure creation of nature.

To all such objects, especially at work and in everyday life, the hands and mind of a person turned out to be applied to one degree or another, so they can be considered the material embodiment of human abilities. In them, as it were, the achievements of the mind of people are objectified. The assimilation of ways of dealing with such objects, their inclusion in activity acts as a person's own development. In all this, human activity differs from the activity of animals, which do not produce anything of the kind.

In other words, human activity manifests itself and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.

The structure of human activity.

In the structure of activity, one should first of all distinguish between the subject and the object of activity. The subject is the one who carries out the activity, the object is what it is aimed at.

The subject of activity can be a person, a group of people, an organization, a government body. The object can be natural materials, various objects, spheres or areas of human life. The subject's activity can also be directed at another person. Finally, the activity of the subject can be directed to himself (a person consciously trains his body, hardens it, brings up his will, is engaged in self-education, etc.). Further, in the structure of activity, one can single out the goal, means of achieving it and results. A person begins any activity with the fact that he sets (posits) a goal for himself. The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, towards which the activity is directed. The goal is what is presented in the mind and is expected as a result of a certain way of directed activity. The goal of an activity may not be any desired image, but only one that corresponds to the real possibilities of the surrounding world and the subject himself. At the same time, a person may or may not know his capabilities, know or not know the properties of objects in the surrounding world. The goal is determined the more accurately, the better the subject of activity knows what the real means and conditions for achieving the goal are.

The motives of human activity.

Motive activity is called what prompts it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity.

The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual.

Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the body (in humans, at creating conditions that are most conducive to this). Such motives are associated with growth, self-preservation and development of the organism.

Functional motives are satisfied through various cultural activities such as games and sports. Material motives encourage a person to engage in activities aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs. Social motives give rise to various types of activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, receiving recognition and respect from the people around them. Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with human self-improvement.

Activity Result

Result - this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result of labor - goods, the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of an activity can be a person himself, since in the course of activity he develops and changes.

Human activities

The man of modern society is engaged in a variety of activities. In order to describe all types of human activity, it is necessary to list the most important needs for a given person, and the number of needs is very large.

The emergence of various types of activity is associated with the social and historical development of a person. The fundamental types of activity in which a person is included in the process of his individual development are communication, play, study, work.

* communication - interaction of two or more people in the process of exchanging information of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature;

* a game - the type of activity in conditional situations that imitate real ones, in which social experience is assimilated;

* teaching - the process of systematic mastering of knowledge, skills, abilities necessary for the performance of labor activity;

* work - activities aimed at creating a socially useful product that meets the material and spiritual needs of people.

Communication -type of activity consisting in the exchange of information between people. Depending on the age stage of human development, the specifics of the activity, the nature of communication changes. Each age stage is characterized by a specific type of communication. In infancy, an adult exchanges with a child emotional statehelps to navigate in the world around. At an early age, communication between an adult and a child is carried out in connection with subject manipulation, the properties of objects are actively mastered, the child's speech is formed. In the preschool period of childhood role-playing game develops interpersonal communication skills with peers. Younger student is busy learning activities, respectively, and communication included in this process. In adolescence, in addition to communication, a lot of time is devoted to preparing for professional activity... The specifics of the professional activity of an adult leaves an imprint on the nature of communication, demeanor and speech. Communication in professional activities not only organizes, but also enriches it, new connections and relationships between people arise in it.

A game -kind of activity, the result of which is not the production of any material product. She is the leading activity of a preschooler, since through her he accepts the norms of society, learns interpersonal communication with peers. Among the varieties of games are individual and group, subject and plot, role-playing and games with rules... Games are of great importance in people's lives: for children, they mainly wear developing character, for adults are a means of communication, relaxation.

Teaching - type of activity, its purpose is acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills... In the process of historical development, knowledge was accumulated in various fields of science and practice, therefore, in order to master this knowledge, teaching stood out as a special type of activity. Teaching affects the mental development of the individual. It consists of the assimilation of information about the properties of surrounding objects and phenomena (knowledge), the right choice techniques and operations in accordance with the goals and conditions of activity (skill).

Workhistorically is one of the first types of human activity. The subject of psychological study is not labor itself as a whole, but its psychological components. Usually work is characterized as a conscious activity that is aimed at achieving the result and is regulated by the will in accordance with its conscious goal. Labor performs an important formative function in the development of a personality, since it affects the formation of its abilities and character.

Attitude to work is laid in early childhood, knowledge and skills are formed in the process of education, special training, work experience. To work means to show oneself in activity. Labor in a certain area of \u200b\u200bhuman activity is associated with a profession.

Thus, each of the types of activity considered above is the most characteristic for certain age stages of personality development. The current type of activity, as it were, prepares the next one, since it develops the corresponding needs, cognitive capabilities and behavioral features.

Depending on the characteristics of a person's attitude to the outside world, activities are divided into practical and spiritual.

Practical activities aimed at changing the world around. Since the surrounding world consists of nature and society, it can be production (changing nature) and socially transforming (changing the structure of society).

Spiritual activity aimed at changing individual and social consciousness. It is realized in the spheres of art, religion, scientific creativity, in moral actions, organizing a collective life and orienting a person to solving the problems of the meaning of life, happiness, well-being.

Spiritual activity includes cognitive activity (gaining knowledge about the world), value (determining the norms and principles of life), predictive (building models of the future), etc.

The division of activity into spiritual and material is conditional. In reality, the spiritual and the material cannot be separated from each other. Any activity has a material side, since in one way or another it relates to the outside world, and an ideal side, since it involves goal-setting, planning, choice of means, etc.

Activity itself, being a specific form of subject-subject relationship, acts as a way of interaction between people. Due to this, in the social characteristics of activity, two of its aspects merge together: substantial (activity as the basis of social substance) and relational (activity as a specifically human value relation to the world and other people).

The structure of an activity is the interconnection of its main elements:

a) the subject of actions aimed at certain objects;

b) objects, i.e. those objects and phenomena to which the active activity of the subject is directed;

c) material and spiritual tools and means of activity, with the help of which the subject of activity influences the object of activity.

The subject of activity (a person, a group of people, society) is an active side of the activity process, the bearer of purposeful actions that express his vital needs and needs.

The fundamental reason for the active relationship of the subject to the world is the need in certain conditions of his being, which determines the needs, interests and goals. It is the needs of the individual, reflecting the adaptive nature of activity, that determine all the states of consciousness and will that precede it, which act as regulators of human actions (through goal-setting, thoughtfulness, the ideal version of the methods and results of activity, conscious control over the latter).

As an awareness of a need, interest acts as a unity of the objective and subjective aspects of activity, the objective position of the subject of action and the subjective characteristics of the state of his consciousness, ideal forces that induce action: motives, attitudes, desires, value orientations. Usually, interests become a clear awareness of needs in situations of repeated difficulties, when the subject of the activity determines and concretizes the goals and means for obtaining a certain result of actions.

The goal and means are correlative concepts: means are designed to contribute to the achievement of the goal, and the goal itself is determined in accordance with the means available to the subject. An equally important prerequisite for goal-setting is the real experience gained by the subject as a result of previous activities. The formation of a goal is always a process of mentally organizing the laws and characteristics of the external and internal world of a person in accordance with his needs to create a version of the forthcoming activity. Objects of the surrounding world in the course of the realization of the goal become means of activity.

The content of the concept "means of activity" can be described as an object, phenomenon or process used by a person in his activity, ie. everything that, due to its properties, serves as an instrument of action. Only what already exists in reality can act as means of activity, and therefore activity is always conditioned by the possibilities of its means. As activities develop, the number of tools and the degree of use of the opportunities contained in them increase. In the course of his activity, a person chooses existing or creates new means necessary for his actions.

At first glance, the choice of means depends on the goal being pursued. Indeed, any means of activity is a tool for achieving the goal, contributing to its implementation in the most optimal way. But the choice of a means of activity is determined by the level of development of society and the subject itself, and therefore, the level of development of needs. The higher the needs of the subject of activity, the higher the level of organization of the means used, the higher the level of their specialization. The choice of the means of activity is also carried out in connection with the expression of the will of the subject.

The goal of human activity is to obtain a certain result, i.e. subject, process, phenomenon. The realized goal becomes the result of human deeds. However, the fact that the result of an activity is conditioned by its goal does not yet speak of their identity. The result of the activity can be one or another, greater or lesser degree of implementation of the set goal. But in any case, we will never observe the coincidence of the result and the goal, if only because the goal is hypothetical, and the result is real.

Moreover, the result is not a mere mechanical embodiment of a goal. A number of specific characteristics of the acting subject also affect the structure and content of the result. This is his experience, skills and abilities, character, emotional mood of life and many other individual characteristics, which at least allow the subject of activity to prefer one or another means of achieving the goal.

The inconsistency of the result with the goal set by the acting subject also occurs due to an insufficiently clear and detailed formulation of the goal, the program of action, as well as due to some force majeure circumstances that appeared in the process of achieving the goal. What happened as a result of the activity, but was not set as a goal, are called consequences. It is important to bear in mind here that sometimes the consequences can oppose the result, discredit even a good goal. The discrepancy between the goal and the result, the negative role of the consequences in a figurative form are successfully expressed in the aphorism: "We wanted the best, but it turned out as always."

The connection of mutual opposition expresses the unity of the subject of action with all components of the action: there can be no action outside and apart from the subject - the bearer of the substantial capacity for purposeful activity. There is no "inactive" subject whose very way of existence is activity, even if it is relaxation or "tolerant action" in the interpretation of P.A. Sorokin, or the activity of "patient acceptance" as interpreted by M. Weber.

The subject-object connection of the compositional intersection characterizes the relativity of the concepts of subject and object, the possibility of replacing the properties of the subject with the opposite properties of the object, a certain compatibility of the initiating and initiated sides of the activity process in the same individual. This happens, for example, in a situation of moral and physical self-improvement, self-reflection, auto-training, etc.

The subject-object relationship of the interpenetration of the subject and the object is expressed in the already mentioned processes of objectification and de-objectification: the transition in the process of activity of the properties and characteristics of the subject into the properties and characteristics of the object, and vice versa.

Thus, the structure of activity is a procedural interconnection of interacting elements in a certain way: the subject of action (his needs and interests, informational mechanisms of consciousness that normalize the setting of goals, motives, control over activities, etc.); the object of the action to which the activity extends, the means of activity used in the process of goal-realization; results, products of activity.

The variety of manifestations of activity raises a serious question about its classification. Most often, activities are typed by types, forms and levels. Carrying out the classification of the main types of activity, usually there are two types of it - spiritual and material. This is primarily due to the different purpose and nature of the products being created. As for the levels of activity, it is customary to distinguish between two: individual and social.

The various phenomena of human life appear before us as one or another type of activity, whether it is the organization of family life, the performance of professional duties, the upbringing of children or the education and self-improvement of a person. The philosophical theory of activity serves as a methodological basis for special-scientific research of activity, ensures the ordering and a certain integration of narrowly professional approaches to it in any field of scientific analysis - biology, sociology, psychology, economic theory, etc.

The philosophy of activity is also of considerable practical interest from the point of view of its use in order to optimize management in various areas of public life.

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1. Human activity, its determinants and structures

In modern socio-philosophical theory, human activity is considered as a universal way of being. It is a set of purposeful actions that ensure the creation of living conditions and personal development of a person. At the same time, in European philosophy, since antiquity (Democritus), there is and more or less successfully develops the idea that the initial driving force of activity is the needs of people (P. Holbach, G. Hegel, etc.). The methodological substantiation of this idea was developed within the framework of the materialist concept of society (K. Marx, F. Engels), which considers the production of means to satisfy the physical needs of the individual as the "first historical act." In such a "format", the idea of \u200b\u200bthe initial determination of people's actions by their needs seems logically flawless: any activity is always performed in the final analysis in order to satisfy any needs of the subject.

In the context of modern concepts, a need is an internally determined need for the manifestation of the subject's activity aimed at preserving its structure and the stability of its functioning. It expresses an objective contradiction in the very essence of any social system. The level of systemic organization of the subjects of social action presupposes their own (internally conditioned) activity as a way of self-reproduction, therefore, self-movement of society would be impossible without an internal “engine” that autonomously acts and gives this movement an initial impulse. Needs are precisely such an engine that primarily initiates social activity and, therefore, acts as a universal basis for social activity.

Is it possible, however, on this basis to assert that all human actions follow directly from needs? Is not the conscious purposefulness of human actions a sufficiently convincing refutation of this thesis? Indeed, sometimes they run counter to the elementary requirements of self-preservation. Is this not evidenced by the facts of suicide of a person who is deprived of the opportunity to achieve the goal set by him, or the manifestation of selflessness in the name of achieving goals set by other people? Where do such external factors and internal motives as incentives, interests, value orientations, motives, intentions, goals play in the determination of activity?

It is known that the vital activity of animals, like any biological activity in general, is fundamentally consumer-oriented. Even in those cases when animals "produce" (be it the construction of honeycombs by bees, nests by birds or dams by beavers), their activity is genotypically determined by the life program of the species and the resulting need to preserve it. Such activity is directly determined by biological needs in all its manifestations. In contrast, human activity includes, in addition to satisfying the needs of individuals, also the transformation of objects of the surrounding world in order to adapt them to the special needs of collectives, social groups, social institutions and society as a whole, which gives it a specific character of social production.

It is the socially productive nature of human activity that gives rise to the complex structure of this activity, which includes objective-prerequisite, subjective-regulatory and goal-realizing structures. Needs function in all these structures and act as a system-forming factor of social determination: all objective causes of human activity, as well as the subjective motives of an individual to social action, are born on a single systemic basis, which is exactly what needs are. In addition, such an essential "moment" arises in social activity as the development of individual and social needs.

Hence it follows that the essence of human activity can be revealed by analyzing and comparing its main types - consumption and production - from the point of view of the peculiarities of their determination. Such an analysis allows us to understand the genesis of productive activity and to reveal its specific social status.

1.1 Specificity of consumption and production

It is usually considered that consumption is a process of satisfying needs, and need is nothing more than consumption in potency. And this, of course, is correct, but this is not enough to distinguish between consumer and productive activity, for production can also be the satisfaction of the subject's need, say, for spiritual and creative activity. Consequently, the border between the named types of activity is neither spatial nor temporal: one and the same activity at the same time and in the same place can be both consumption and production.

The qualitative boundary between them can be established by resorting to such a criterion as the result of activity. Satisfaction of the need is, by definition, an internally necessary manifestation of the subject's activity, aimed at reproducing some optimal state of the dynamic stability of this subject. If this result is achieved in activity, it can be characterized as consumption, although, we emphasize again, in a different respect it can represent production. Consumption as the satisfaction of the actual needs of the subject ensures its permanent reproduction in its own quality, acquired genotypically and socially, that is, the reproduction of the material and spiritual structures of this subject.

The fundamental type of consumer activity is material consumption, that is, the satisfaction of the biogenic needs of an individual, which is an active phase of his material-energy exchange with the environment. This exchange ensures self-preservation of the subject's body. The volume of biogenic needs is characterized by relatively stable parameters set both by the properties of the human genotype and by the characteristics of a particular individual, therefore the optimal intensity of material consumption activity is a statistically constant, "computable" value. The variety of material consumption is not due to the substantial enrichment of the subject's system of needs, but only to the progressive diversification of the means of satisfying them.

Spiritual consumption, acting as a way to satisfy the sociogenic needs of a person, has a significantly higher quantitative and qualitative variability. It is carried out at two main levels. The first of them is the appropriation of spiritual value contained in objects and phenomena of nature, in the products of material and, especially, spiritual production. The manifestations of this type of consumption are extremely diverse - from admiring the beauty of flowers and the tints of the evening dawn to educational and cognitive activities and communication with works of fiction and art.

The second, the highest level of spiritual consumption is the satisfaction of the individual's needs for creative self-expression, for explication, deployment, implementation of his creative potential. In activities of this kind, the "two-faced Janus" of consumption-production, or, if you will, production-consumption, is most clearly visible. Indeed, it is under the direct influence of these needs that scientific discoveries, and masterpieces of art, and the ups of socio-political activity are born. Here we return to the question of what production is.

Unlike consumption, which can be represented as the subject's positing of himself, turned by him into his own inner sphere, production is the positing of the human essence outside, the creation of a product not for himself - an object, material or spiritual, capable of satisfying the needs of other subjects. Production in the categorical sense of the word does not include processes that "serve" the satisfaction of the subject's own needs. Such processes merge together with consumer activity, although they involve not only the accumulation, but also the expenditure of physical and mental strength: after all, even chewing food requires some expenditure of energy, especially its preparation. From this point of view, cooking for oneself is an element of consumption, while the activity of a cook in a restaurant is a productive activity. Such is any human activity that is objectively aimed at creating, in the process itself or as a result, opportunities to meet the needs of other people, collectives, social groups, and society as a whole.

In the act of production, the costs of the subject of physical and mental energy do not contribute to his self-preservation. They, as a rule, over-actualize the fundamental needs of the subject, "imposing" on him an intensive mode of their satisfaction. This statement is true for any, including creative, activity that is abstractly the subject of the subject's need. By virtue of social regulation, it also acquires socially defined parameters of duration, intensity, focus on an objective result and all other signs of productive activity. Accordingly, it causes the same effect of "increasing entropy" in the body - overwork of individual organs, imbalance of functions, etc. In addition, the subject's participation in productive activity always limits the ability to simultaneously satisfy his other needs and channel his functioning as a whole.

Thus, the productive activity of an individual in its logically absolutized one-sidedness is incompatible with consumption — it acts as its negation. In reality, making up a dialectical unity with him, she always, to one degree or another, is discordant both with the process and with the goals of satisfying the needs of the subject. If consumption is aimed exclusively at resolving the internal contradictions of the subject - the bearer of the need, at ensuring its optimum in life, then production is subordinated to goals that go far beyond the "need circuit" of determination. Therefore, it is productive activity that in most cases has other determinants than the need of subjects for such activity. To identify their nature, it is advisable to turn to the origins of labor as the main type of human productive activity.

Based on the data of anthropology, we can assert that the emergence of labor activity in anthroposociogenesis was associated with a significant change in the natural living conditions of the emerging people, who already had the rudiments of "tool" activity. They existed in the form of random, episodically reproduced attempts to improve the means and methods of satisfying the needs of hominids. A sharp change in climate, flora and fauna during the glaciation period put Neanderthals on the brink of extinction. As a result, the use of the acquired labor skills has become a "categorical" necessity, because it has become the only possible way of survival. The ape-man, who lost his ecological niche, gradually turned into a Homo sapiens, producing the objects of his needs.

Consequently, the impossibility of satisfying needs with biological means was an external natural factor that caused the appearance of the phenomenon of productive activity in anthropo-sociogenesis. On this basis, a more general conclusion can be formulated: productive activity as a way of human existence arises where and when and when it becomes fundamentally impossible to directly satisfy the present needs of the subject, not mediated by the manufacture of the corresponding objects. In other conditions, it can exist only as a random manifestation of the previously acquired abilities of the individual.

At the same time, certain internal preconditions were necessary for the emergence of productive activity. In this capacity, first of all, some morphophysiological features of the anthropoid organism acted: the structure of the brain and forelimbs, upright posture, etc. But not only. Equally necessary was such a population-specific feature of primates as a herd way of life, the formation of stable associations that, under certain conditions, can turn into social associations - collectives. It is precisely collectivity as a new quality of intra-herd relations that has become the most important prerequisite for sociality.

Production could develop only within the framework of a social community, in the proper sense of the word it is always an activity that has a fundamentally social character. Specialization and cooperation of labor make it possible to exchange and distribute the products of production in order to satisfy needs. G. Hegel, reflecting on this phenomenon of social life, emphasized that each member of society reproduces himself in consumption, but the condition for this is production for the needs of others. Such activity, which does not involve the need for either the consumption of the product by its producer, or the production by the consumer of the object of his need, is precisely socially productive activity.

The development of social production throughout human history manifests itself as a continuous improvement in the technique and technology of productive activity, as well as social forms of integration and interaction of people in the process of this activity. At the same time, this development entails the emergence of more and more new means and methods of satisfying human biogenic needs, an increase in the variety of objects by which they are satisfied. Finally, in the process of social production and on its basis, there is also the birth of new, "superbiological" human needs. They are born regardless of the desire and will of the subject as an objective result of a certain set of acts of productive activity carried out by this subject.

In the socio-historical process, each new act of production is caused by the need to satisfy the needs that have arisen as a result of the previous activity of society. But, creating the necessary conditions and means of satisfying the already existing needs of society and its members, a new act of social production taking place for this purpose simultaneously generates a new phase in the evolution of these needs: it creates new needs, actualizes existing ones, accelerates an increase in their volume, etc. , each act of production gives rise to needs that are not satisfied by it, but only by the subsequent act of production. Thus, the contradiction between needs and socially conditioned possibilities of their satisfaction is reproduced at a new level. This contradiction is the fundamental factor of social production, the deepest source of its development.

Thus, if the genesis of social productive activity was determined by external natural factors, then the further development of social production takes place through self-determination: production acts both as a specifically social way of generating a contradiction between human needs and the possibilities of satisfying them, and at the same time as a universal way of resolving this contradiction.

Based on the conclusions made, it is possible to build a theoretical model that would reveal the complex of social factors and incentive forces that make the individual a subject of specifically human, productive activity.

1.2 Objective factors of activity

The opportunity created by production to satisfy the needs of subjects is only an abstract universal possibility. The specific possibilities of satisfying the needs of a particular subject (individual or collective) are determined not only (and even more often not so much) by the general level of production and consumption, but also by the social position of the subject and the measure of his participation in the social production process. Since at the same time the productive activity of an individual does not directly serve to satisfy his needs, and therefore is not an internal necessity for his functioning, it needs external determination. The factors of such determination are contained in the system of social relations, into which the individual enters, and within which only the satisfaction of his needs is possible.

Society as an integral self-reproducing and self-developing system of social activity and social relations has its own needs that do not coincide with the needs of individuals. At the same time, individual and social needs in their dynamics form a dialectical unity. They mutually suppose each other, first of all in a genetic relation: without individual needs there would be no social needs, and the development of the needs of individuals is associated with the emergence of the latter. In addition, both groups of needs are impossible without each other and in the process of satisfaction: the activity of individuals, directly subordinate to social needs, creates the preconditions for satisfying individual needs.

At the same time, the needs of individuals and the needs of society are mutually opposed to each other in the process of their satisfaction. The needs of society, subordinating the activities of the individual, remain at the same time "alien" to him. For example, clothing - an object of the needs of individuals - is not an object of the needs of society. But the production of clothes is included in the number of the needs of society itself, the needs of the corresponding professional groups, collectives, and only in more or less strictly defined conditions also in the number of needs

307some individuals. Individual consumption denies the results of production and actualizes the social need to resume the production process. In the same way, the satisfaction of social needs is possible only through the activities of individuals, it "absorbs" their vital forces and abilities, makes it necessary to subsequently turn their activity towards self-reproduction, towards meeting their own needs.

To resolve this essential contradiction in the system of social needs, a special social mechanism is needed that mediates the interaction of those and other needs and makes it possible to create a social situation that, firstly, would induce the manufacturer to produce items that meet the needs of society, and, secondly, would provide the simultaneous creation of opportunities to meet the needs of the manufacturer. In this capacity, there is a system of incentives for the participation of individuals (and collectives) in the productive activity of society. In the original meaning of the word stimulus is nothing more than a "goad", a stick used to drive mules, and in the modern categorical meaning - an external impulse that causes the subject to be active. Recognition of the “outside position” of the stimulus in relation to the subject is the first step towards comprehending the specifics of the determination of human, productive activity itself.

In its social essence, a stimulus is the possibility of satisfying the needs of a subject (an individual or a collective) arising from his productive activity aimed at meeting certain social needs. The dynamic force of incentives that motivates action is "fed" by the tension of the contradiction between the continuously reproducing needs of members of society and the existing social possibilities for their satisfaction. Unlike "rough" coercion (order, prescription, order, threat, etc.), which contains a direct indication of the nature of the action, stimulation affects the subject indirectly, through a change in the external circumstances of his life.

As a result of this, a special attitude of the subject to social reality arises, which encourages him to participate in creative activity, containing a more or less wide range of the subject's choice of direction and forms of activity. This attitude is denoted in activity philosophy by the concept of "interest". Consequently, interest is another necessary factor in the determination of human activity, growing on a need-based basis and expressing the specificity of the social way of satisfying human needs.

The European philosophy of activity has long grasped the essential connection between human interests and needs. According to I. Kant, any interest presupposes a need or generates it. Based on this view, German classical, and then Marxist philosophy was of interest as the driving force of human activity. However, in the understanding of interest, it is usually absolutized, "straightened" its direction to meet the needs of the subject. This "line" goes back to F. Bacon and T. Hobbes, but it can be traced especially clearly in the reflections of the French materialists of the eighteenth century, and at a later time in the philosophy of pragmatism. With such an approach, interest is identified with a social need, with the results of its realization, with the subject's desire to satisfy the need, etc.

Such ideas do not allow us to establish the peculiarities of the determination of human, productive activity, in which the specific function of interest is revealed. "Derivation" of interest from a need or its awareness essentially "equalizes" the objective determination of production and consumption. Meanwhile, the concept of interest captures the fact that only needs and stimuli in their internal unity objectively, regardless of their awareness, put the subject in a special relation to social reality, causing the need for his participation in social production. Interest is the "intentional" expression in the subject of the contradiction between his needs and socially determined possibilities of their satisfaction.

Hence it is clear that interest plays an independent role in the determination of people's activities: the need for action contained in it is a qualitatively different need in comparison with that expressed in the needs of the subject. If the need is based on an internal contradiction, then interest is based on an external (for the subject) contradiction, which appears in the form of a discrepancy between the needs of the subject and the social conditions for their satisfaction.

In other words, the driving role of interest can be understood only taking into account the fact that the subject of social action is always not only a sovereign bearer of a need, but also an element of the social system, "inscribed" into it as a member of a collective, social group, or society. If interest is the conditioning of the subject by the system, then the need is the conditioning of the subject by itself (V.P. Fofanov). Interests characterize a person as a doer and, much more than needs, express his social nature. The subject of interest is, contrary to popular belief, not the satisfaction of the needs of the subject himself, but the satisfaction of the "general", "alien" for him the needs of society. If the product of the subject's activity itself satisfied his needs, interest as a special, "indecent" attitude of the subject to social reality simply could not arise.

Being integrated into the system of social relations, individuals and collectives act as subjects of social production, "being included" in it through the "fabric" of these relations, that is, interacting with each other in some socially defined form. Social relations, according to F. Engels, just manifest themselves in the activities of people as their interests. These relations "dictate" to the subject the "program" of his actions, containing the driving forces and direction of his activity. It is the “matter” of social relations that transforms necessity, existing in the form of a need, that is, an incentive to consume, into a necessity expressed in the form of an interest that prompts its bearer to socially directed productive action.

Due to the mutual dependence of individuals in the process of satisfying their needs and the resulting communities and differences in their social status, their interests are integrated within the social whole and at the same time the common interest arising in this process is differentiated into the interests of social groups, collectives and social institutions. Individual and common interests always form an indissoluble unity both genetically and essentially and functionally: individual interest, of course, does not appear outside of society, but in order for a common interest to arise, contradictions between the needs of individuals and opportunities must develop and be integrated in society in a certain way their satisfaction. Such contradictions can be resolved in the interests of the subject only in society and through society, and, consequently, through the implementation of public interests.

Thus, the common interest (of a family, a production collective, a nation, a class, society as a whole) expresses a contradiction between the socially integrated set of needs of members of the community and the social possibilities of satisfying these needs. Being internal to this or that community, this contradiction is expressed as an internal necessity of social productive activity, that is, as a social need. Hence, it is clear that the social need is identical to the "integral sum" of the interests of all members of society, and the concepts of "social needs" and "public interests" coincide in their content. Social need as a result of social integration of individual interests (by "refracting" them through the "prism" of social relations) is nothing more than the need of society to create opportunities to meet the needs of individuals, that is, to realize their interests.

In the interaction of individual and public interests, their opposite or, conversely, their identity, interpenetration, coincidence in the main, essential can come to the fore. The moment of identity of those and other interests is formed by the distribution of means of consumption in accordance with the extent to which the subject meets the needs of society. In this case, there are powerful incentives to socially oriented labor activity of the subject. And on how the contradiction between the interests of the individual and society is resolved, the "health" of society, the degree of social tension, and the social "well-being" of members of society depend to a great extent. Historical experience shows that humanity is slowly but persistently advancing along the path of optimizing the balance of common and individual interests.

Taken together, needs, incentives and interests objectively determine human activity in all its forms and manifestations. At the same time, social necessity, acting in the form of these determinants, cannot be realized without being embodied in certain phenomena of the psyche of the acting subjects. At the same time, consumer and productive activities have different ways of subjective determination, and the way of expressing objective necessity in various mental phenomena, which is contained in the needs and interests of the subject, is also different. In this regard, let us turn to the analysis of the specificity of the subjective-regulatory structures of both types of activity.

1.3 Subjective determination of consumption

If animals satisfy their needs, apparently dispensing with only their sensory reflection in the form of more or less definite drives, then human consumption activity presupposes conscious determination. What is the content of the phenomena of consciousness that induce the subject to action: are they subjective correlates of human needs, or do they ideally represent a structural “cut” of the more complex process of social determination of human activity?

To answer this question, one must turn to the concept of motive. Its content appears as a consciously accepted by the subject, that is, subjective, the need for his action in the chosen direction.

311 All activity is subjectively justified when it is motivated and, therefore, is considered internally necessary by the subject himself. What are the factors that form the content of the motive? What is an act of motivation? Do mental manifestations of the determinants of human activity always take an ideal form?

Today it seems certain that the processes of behavior motivation are influenced by unconscious attitudes, which to one degree or another predetermine the motivational decision. But, as Z. Freud showed, the unconscious can function without moving to the level of consciousness, without manifesting in it. Man inherited from his animal ancestors the mechanism of instinctive psychomotor reactions, which allows him, in certain situations, to react to internal and external stimuli according to a genetically given program, which is implemented in addition to accumulating, assimilating and transmitting individual experience. Awareness of these reactions becomes necessary only when it is required to create opportunities, choose the means and ways to satisfy the actualized need.

But even when the actions of the individual are performed through the fixation and use of the acquired experience, their incentive impulses and regulators are far from always being realized. Attitude theory, developed by the Georgian psychologist D. N. Uznadze and his followers, suggests that the biopsychological organization of the individual and his life experience form the unconsciously implemented methods of initiating and regulating his behavior in typical life circumstances. As a result, he develops an attitude (anticipation, intention), or psychophysiological readiness to act in a certain way in a certain situation.

However, the installation does not always "work" unambiguously. Already in higher animals there is a dependence of behavior on several interacting impulses, leading to the origin of different needs. In a person, the simultaneous action of several instincts, attitudes and other multidirectional impulses coming from different groups of needs, which are actualized in different ways - endogenously (spontaneously), exogenously (situationally), as well as at a different pace, cyclically and in other ways - this is common " background "of all his life manifestations. So, cyclically increasing dissatisfaction with one of the needs makes it for some time a "categorical imperative" of the feelings, thoughts and actions of the individual, but such an imperative is transient, and as the need is satisfied, it disappears.

Needs manifest themselves in the form of emotions, which are the basis of a person's motivational system. Emotions express a certain state of the organism, determined both by the degree of satisfaction of actualized needs and by the impact on the sense organs of external factors that have a positive or negative significance for satisfying these needs. But emotions are inherent in motivational "myopia", due to the impulsive-situational way of their excitation, it limits their functioning as independent mental determinants of the behavior of the individual, mainly in everyday and interpersonal relationships.

Consumption activity in its specifically human "development" includes, in addition to impulsive, emotionally determined, situational behavior, also conscious-volitional activity, which is relatively independent of the emotional-sensory sphere of the individual. The world of human needs, means and ways of satisfying them is diverse, it contains needs of various levels. Satisfaction of the highest sociogenic (spiritual) needs allows for a wide range of measures, means and methods of its implementation. The existence, actualization and satisfaction of these needs are much more consistently associated with the formation of human, social feelings (love for the mother, homeland, profession, artistic creativity, etc.), volitional qualities and intellectual abilities of the subject.

So, if in emotional motives a person directly depends on actual needs and situations, then feelings arising on the basis of social and spiritual needs are mediated by his consciousness. They regulate human actions in accordance with moral and other social norms. What will exceed - the emotion of fear or a sense of duty, shame, conscience - the behavior of a person depends on this, not only, for example, on the battlefield, but also in any situation of difficult choice. Performing his social functions (for example, hard work), an individual often experiences not pleasure, but suffering from muscle and nervous overwork, but he consciously strives to achieve a socially and personally significant result, receiving moral satisfaction from this.

For a motivational choice to become a factor in the formation of a life strategy, it must be based on the subject's own ideas of relevance, vital importance, personal significance and, consequently, the order and measure of satisfaction of his needs, systematized in a certain way. The process of forming a motive by subjective substantiation of the need to act for the sake of satisfying a certain need is precisely designated by the concept of motivation. Inapplicable to unambiguously programmed activity, regulated exclusively by instincts and emotions, it characterizes the central link in the mechanism of subjective determination of human activity. The motive acts as a subjectively expressed reason for the action, while the basis of the motivational choice is the value-evaluative attitude of a person to the world.

Value is a property of objects that arises on the basis of their practical interaction with the subject - the bearer of needs and exists objectively, regardless of whether this object is evaluated by the subject himself. Things created in the process of social practice, as well as the thoughts, feelings and actions of people developed on its basis, acquire value properties, becoming objects of human needs - means of self-reproduction and self-improvement of the subject. At the same time, between the subject of practical action and the object involved in the orbit of social practice, a need-value relation arises, in which the objects are subject to value definitions in their objective connection with the needs of the subject. The need, however, acts as the relationship of the subject to an object with value properties.

The world of values \u200b\u200bis revealed to the subject as a result of the evaluative activity of consciousness. The subject, being aware of his needs, develops a value-evaluative attitude to the objects of the external environment, to the means and ways of satisfying needs. The subject's ideas about his needs, about the possibilities and conditions of their satisfaction arising from his place in society, form the value orientation, worldview principles and ideals of this subject. As a result, social reality is recognized in its relation to the subject, and the subject himself is aware of himself in relation to this reality: the reflection of his needs in consciousness is differentiated and systematized, refracted through the prism of his social position and consumer possibilities, his interests and the corresponding subjective formations - assessments , beliefs, ideals.

The subject's consuming behavior is almost always determined not by one motive, excited by some actual need, but by a more general life attitude, which presupposes the presence of a number of subordinate and differently actualized needs that generate or mutually cooperative, "synergistic", or mutually contradictory, "ambivalent" motivation. This makes it necessary to compare, agree, select options, determine priorities, find compromises, make motivational decisions, etc. The subject must consciously "organize", that is, systematize and structure, the motives of his actions, put them in order, which would correspond to his value positions and ideological attitudes.

In the psychology of activity, these motivational processes are characterized as hierarchization, subordination and re-subordination of motives, their correlation with each other, as it were, in a vertical plane. Such a consciously evaluative, rationalized attitude towards one's own needs makes it possible for the subject to choose a certain system of values, the formation of his individual value orientation, therefore, the development of a "scale" of preferences, which just orders, organizes, "ranks" his needs according to their vital significance , forming a conscious attitude on the subject's attitude to reality corresponding to this scale, initiating and directing his social activity.

The development of value positions, beliefs and ideals forms the motivational sphere of the individual - a stable set of inherent subjective determinants of behavior and activity. The motivational sphere always expresses not only objective needs, but also the subjective value preferences of the individual, as well as the degree of awareness of needs, means and ways of meeting them. In conditions of competition of acutely urgent and highly developed needs, a situation inevitably arises in which the motivational choice turns out to be an alternative: the decision to satisfy one need always means a refusal (at least temporarily) from satisfying others or a decrease in the level of their satisfaction. Here motivation takes on the features of an open internal conflict, "discord", dissatisfaction with one's decisions and actions, "psychological crisis", etc.

Internal struggle, "search for oneself" is especially characteristic of spiritually wealthy individuals with a rich motivational sphere, which includes developed moral, aesthetic, creative and other spiritual motives. At the same time, motivation is freed from the power of uncontrollable drives and external influences, it becomes a special type of internal, mental activity by comparing various motives with each other, with value orientations, moral principles, and worldview attitudes. Ignoring impulsive-situational impulses, analyzing and assessing possible immediate and long-term consequences of choice - the most character traits conscious motivation.

On the contrary, a person with a weakly hierarchized motivational sphere, who does not have constancy of motives and strong-willed character, is subject to the dictates of his own drives and situational motives. Her behavior is conformal, devoid of internal logic and consistency - such a person is guided by the mood of the crowd, she becomes an object of manipulation by unscrupulous people, etc. The “grayness” of the motivational sphere, combined with its narrowness and poverty, an attitude towards the immediate satisfaction of actualized material needs at any cost, the desire for comfort, the subordination of behavior to momentary desires, and not to duty and life prospects (first of all, “I want”, not “must”), can create a “motivational vacuum”, a feeling of emptiness and meaninglessness of life, which become the motivational base of asocial behavior or even suicide.

Personality development is always associated with a decrease in the importance of impulsive urges, an expansion of the time scale of the motivational sphere and an increase in the role of behavioral motives, genetically and structurally higher, which well expresses the personal specificity of motivation. As a result of the hierarchization of motives and the formation of the motivational sphere, a motivational dominant is formed in the subject: one or several motives become steadily dominant, determining the direction of his actions, life guidelines and goals. In this case, other motives are subordinated to the dominant ones, therefore, they are secondary, tertiary, etc. Highly developed and steadily preferred needs form long-term life dominants, while cyclically actualizing needs generate short-term dominants of behavior. The vector of behavior is an integral result of the interaction of both dominants.

The holistic structure of a personality is determined by its motivational orientation, the basis of which is formed by a steadily dominant system of motives. The formed social orientation of the individual allows her to act in pursuit of life guidelines that go far beyond actual needs and current circumstances. It provides the motivational “foresight” of the individual, the autonomy of her behavior from impulsive and situational motives. It is known that the motivational attitudes and dominants inherent in a strong personality do not allow imposing goals alien to her, even in a state of deep hypnosis, that is, in the absence of control from the side of consciousness.

Meanwhile, both Freudianism and "humanistic psychology" essentially deny that a person has impulses to action that could not be reduced to a single deterministic basis, which lies deep in the instinctive and unconscious. According to A. Maslow, higher needs are always subjectively perceived as less urgent in comparison with lower ones. From these positions it is impossible to explain the willingness of a spiritually mature person to live from hand to mouth for the sake of communicating with a book, to go to death for the sake of a common cause, etc. action on the degree of satisfaction of the lowest, that is, genetically and structurally primary needs, and underestimated the conscious motivation based on the value choice of human actions.

The satisfaction of fundamental needs, as a rule, is a favorable "background" condition for motivational choice - it facilitates and simplifies it. At the same time, this does not mean that in the case of insufficient satisfaction of basic needs, they necessarily become a motivational dominant. First, the more developed the higher spiritual needs, the higher the position they occupy on the scale of preferences, becoming the leading factor determining the value orientations and activities of the subject. Secondly, when weighed on the "value scales", the highest needs can be given preference regardless of the degree of their development. Satisfaction of the same fundamental (basic) needs will be considered in this case as a necessary "tribute" to anatomy and physiology, ensuring the functioning of the individual as a subject of spiritual activity.

However, here it is time to ask the question: is the motive of activity always objectively determined only by the structure of the needs and value orientations of the subject? After all, motivation as a preference for one need over another does not reveal the specificity of human activity, that is, creative activity, which is associated with ideal determination.

1.4 Perfect Activity Programming

If the subject's motives for consumption are derived from the hierarchy of needs, then the solution to the problem of subjective determination of the productive (creative) human activity is possible only in a system of concepts that includes the previously considered concept of interest. Let us recall that the need initiates the subject's spontaneous activity, independent of external necessity, ensuring his self-preservation. Such activity is always caused directly by attraction, desire, striving and therefore does not require either external motives or volitional efforts of the subject himself. Consequently, consumer behavior does not contain an ideal scheme of actions, it is subordinated to motives in which the individual system of needs and the unique world of the subject's value preferences are expressed.

On the contrary, interest determines the socially oriented actions of the subject, which require stimulation from society and manifestations of will on the part of the subject himself. The subject's awareness of his interests, the analysis of various options for their implementation and the choice of the one that seems to be optimal, constitute the main content of the motivation of specifically human activity. The contradiction between needs and the possibilities of their satisfaction in the existing social conditions mobilizes the functional and energetic capabilities of the subject, forming an intense field of motivation, within which the creative activity of this subject is determined. It is thanks to the interests that motivate such activity that the individual becomes an active social being. His activity acquires a special semantic orientation, which has a social nature, since the formation of its motives is determined not only by the dynamics of the subject's needs, but also by the need to satisfy social needs.

The evaluative activity of the subject is not limited to the structuring of needs in his consciousness and the development of an attitude towards them; it reveals the multifaceted social connection between the subject and social reality, primarily those conditions in which the production and appropriation of objects of their needs become possible. Based on the assessment, subjective interest arises, that is, the focus of the individual's attention on the transformation of certain objects in accordance with the needs of society and the abilities of this individual.

Interest, having passed through the “filter” of the motivational sphere, takes the form of a subjective urge to creative activity, which is a conscious intention to act in the direction of realizing certain interests of the subject. Intention, as an awareness of the need for the subject to perform a system of socially oriented actions in a situation that excludes the possibility of satisfying his needs, acquires a dynamic force, sometimes no less than his drives and desires. At the same time, intention is not yet a sufficient subjective prerequisite for conscious action. After him and on its basis, such an ideal motivation for activity arises as a goal.

It is known that purposefulness characterizes the behavior of all living beings. In this case, the goal of biological activity appears in the image of the state of the organism, which it acquires as a result of satisfying needs. When it comes to human activity, the goal appears as an ideal, mental image of the future result of the subject's actions. In other words, unlike the goals implemented by other systems, human purpose is a conscious goal. Such a definition, introduced by Karl Marx, still has no objection to anyone. But if this is true, then how to explain that animals achieve their goals unconsciously, and human actions are anticipated by the ideal image of their result?

In those cases when the goal expresses by its content an individual need and is a form of its realization, it does not have any fundamental differences from the goals unconsciously realized by biological organisms. Such a goal may be unreflected, “fused” with an emotionally expressed motive of action aimed at appropriating an object and satisfying a need. If the goal is structurally differentiated at the level of evaluative activity, then it acts as a model no longer “required” in general, but a consciously preferred future, and therefore it may run counter to some actual needs. Expressing hierarchical relations in the sphere of needs, it includes value-motivational content and therefore acquires a certain personal meaning. However, in this case, the goal does not necessarily carry a conscious beginning: the function of consciousness here is not to develop goals (they arise outside of consciousness), but to establish their subordination, in the choice of forms and means of achieving them.

In contrast to this, the socially productive activity of the subject is subordinated to the goals arising in an immediate plan not from his own needs, but from the needs of society. Such a goal is an ideal product of correlating the needs of the subject with the social possibilities of their realization: it is aimed at creating social conditions in which the appropriation of the subject of need will become possible. Here a special phase of activity appears - goal-setting, in which an ideal program of activity is developed, directing the subject's activity to resolve the contradiction between his needs and the social conditions of his being.

The goal is nothing more than the ideal form for resolving this contradiction. Therefore, goal setting and subsequent goal implementation are proportional not only to the needs of the subject, but also to the possibilities of changing the object in the direction set by the needs of society and the interests of the subject. In goal-setting, both the need-motivational sphere of the subject and the ideal (essential) reflection of those social ties through which his socially directed activity creates the possibility of satisfying his needs are involved.

The content of the goal forms a vision of the future through the prism of needs, interests, unconscious attitudes, value orientations, motives, beliefs, ideals of the subject. As a result of these mediations, a projection of the future arises, into which the satisfaction of the need is transferred, since it is impossible in the present. At the same time, goal formation is based on a logical picture of reality, which allows for the possibility of changing this reality in accordance with its immanent objective laws. Such a picture is reproduced, assimilated and corrected by the subject in the process of his cognitive activity.

At the same time, goal-setting is not reduced to creating an image of the foreseeable future state of the object of activity, which it can accept in accordance with its internal laws and the objective possibilities of changing it. Goal-setting is an ideal modeling of what this object should become as a result of transformative activity. The specificity of the goal is that it connects the present with the future, anticipating the desired future in the form of an ideal image of the result of future activities.

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dissertation, added 06/03/2010


Manifestations of the human essence. History as a synonym for the concept of "society". Biological and sociological concepts of the interpretation of human nature. Human activity and its consequences: global problems of humanity, recipes for survival.

abstract, added on 02/10/2010


Category of activity within the framework of the theory of knowledge in philosophy Ancient Greece, Modern and classic German. General system characteristics of transformative, cognitive, value-orientational and communicative human practice.

term paper, added 12/30/2010


Evolution of social and philosophical thought. Description of social life as the material sphere of human life. Studying the concept, history of the origin of property, highlighting its main forms. Characteristics of the social structure of society.

abstract, added 10/16/2010


Spiritual evolution of N.A. Berdyaeva. The incommensurability of a contradictory and irrational human nature with rationalistic humanism. Freedom of the human person and the nature of the creative act. Creativity as the realization of freedom, a way to harmonize life.

abstract added on 12/22/2013


The need for a special philosophical understanding of the problem of being. The meaning of life and the meaning of being. The forms of being (universal and individual) and the dialectics of their interaction. Specificity of social (public) being. Philosophical questions about the ideal and the material.

abstract, added on 05/01/2012


Perfect as essential property consciousness, the original meaning of the problem. The concept of the idea and the ideal in philosophy. The specificity of the human form of the ideal in the works of philosophers of different times. Plato's doctrine of ideas and its meaning. The specifics of being ideal.

Activities can be defined as a specific type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including himself and the conditions of his existence. In activities, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that did not exist in nature without his activity. The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that thanks to it he goes beyond the limits of his natural limitations, i.e. surpasses its own genotypically determined capabilities. As a result of the productive, creative nature of his activities, man has created sign systems, tools for influencing himself and nature. Using these tools, he built a modern society, cities, machines, with their help he produced new consumer goods, material and spiritual culture, and ultimately transformed himself. The historical progress that has taken place over the past several tens of thousands of years owes its origin precisely to activity, and not to the improvement of the biological nature of people.

Modern man lives surrounded by such objects, none of which is a pure creation of nature.

To all such objects, especially at work and in everyday life, the hands and mind of a person were applied to one degree or another, so that they can be considered the material embodiment of human abilities. In them, as it were, the achievements of the human mind are objectified. The assimilation of ways of dealing with such objects, their inclusion in activity acts as a person's own development. All of this human activity differs from animal activitythat do not produce anything of the kind: no clothes, no furniture, no cars, no sign systems, no tools, no vehicles and much more. To satisfy their needs, animals use only what nature has provided them.

In other words, human activity manifests itself and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.

Having given birth to and continuing to improve consumer goods, a person, in addition to abilities, develops his needs. Once connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, the needs of people acquire a cultural character.

Activities person is fundamentally different from activity animals and in another respect. If the activity of animals is caused by natural needs, then human activity is mainly generated and supported by artificial needs arising from the appropriation of the achievements of the cultural and historical development of people of the present and previous generations. These are the needs for knowledge (scientific and artistic), creativity, moral self-improvement, and others.

Forms and methods of human organization activities also differ from activity animals. Almost all of them are associated with complex motor skills and abilities that animals do not have - skills and abilities acquired as a result of conscious, purposeful, organized learning. From early childhood, a child is specially taught to use household items in a human way (fork, spoon, clothes, chair, table, soap, toothbrush, pencil, paper, etc.), various tools that transform the movements of the limbs given by nature ... They begin to obey the logic of the objects with which a person deals. Objective activity arises, which differs from the natural activity of animals.

The system of movements performed by animals is determined by the anatomical and physiological structure of the body. With objects of human material culture (book, pencil, spoon, etc.), animals are treated as if they were ordinary natural objects, regardless of their cultural purpose and the way people use them. In humans, the very movements of the arms and legs are transformed, obeying the rules of the culture of using the corresponding objects, i.e. become artificial, more perfect and socially conditioned.

Animals only consume what is given to them by nature. Man, on the contrary, creates more than consumes. If his activity, as well as the activity of animals, were mainly of a consumer nature, then several tens of generations of people would not have been able to achieve such progress in a historically relatively short period of time, to create a grandiose world of spiritual and material culture. All this is due to the active nature of human activity.

So, the main differences between human activity and animal activity boil down to the following:

1. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new in comparison with what is given by nature.

2. Human activity is associated with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him or as tools, or as items to satisfy needs, or as a means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.

3. Human activity transforms him, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in the external conditions of life.

4. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of history. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.

5. Objective activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and the way of using the surrounding objects. Such activities need to be shaped and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological, and psychological structures that govern the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially set, genotypically determined and unfolds as the body naturally matures.

Activities differs not only from activitybut also from behavior... Behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, and is often passive. Activities are always purposeful, active, aimed at creating a certain product. Behavior is spontaneous ("where it will lead"), activity is organized; behavior is chaotic, activity is systematic.

Human activity has the following main characteristics: motive, purpose, object, structure and facilities . Motive activity is called what prompts it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity.

The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the body (in humans, at creating conditions that are most conducive to this). Such motives are associated with growth, self-preservation and development of the organism. This is the production of food, housing, clothing, etc. Functional motives are satisfied through various cultural activities such as games and sports. Material motives encourage a person to engage in activities aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs. Social motives give rise to various types of activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from the people around them. Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with human self-improvement. The type of activity is usually determined by its dominant motive (dominant because every human activity is polymotivated, that is, prompted by several different motives).

As goals activity is its product. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The goal of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and goal of an activity may coincide with each other. Different types of activities with the same goal (end result) can be stimulated and supported by different motives. On the contrary, a number of activities with different final goals may be based on the same motives. For example, reading a book for a person can act as a means of satisfying material (to demonstrate knowledge and get a high-paying job for this), social (to shine with knowledge in a circle of significant people, to achieve their location), spiritual (to expand your horizons, rise to a higher level of moral development ) needs. Such different types Activities such as acquiring fashionable, prestigious things, reading literature, caring for appearance, developing the ability to behave, can ultimately pursue the same goal: to achieve someone's favor at all costs.

Subject activity is called that with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is all kinds of information, the subject learning activities - knowledge, abilities and skills, the subject of labor activity is the created material product.

Every activity has a certain structure... It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of activities. Action they call a part of an activity that has a completely independent, human-conscious goal. For example, an action included in the structure of cognitive activity can be called receiving a book, reading it; activities that are part of labor activity can be considered familiarity with the task, the search for the necessary tools and materials, the development of the project, the technology of manufacturing the object, etc .; actions related to creativity are the formulation of an idea, its stage-by-stage implementation in the product of creative work.

Operation is called a way of performing an action As there are different ways of performing an action, as many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operation depends on the conditions for performing the action, on the skills and abilities available to the person, on the available tools and means of performing the action. Different people, for example, remember information and write in different ways. This means that they carry out the action of writing a text or memorizing material using various operations. The operations preferred by a person characterize his individual style of activity.

As funds the implementation of activities for a person are those tools that he uses, performing certain actions and operations. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which the activity becomes more productive and of high quality.

Motivation activity in the course of its development does not remain unchanged. So, for example, in labor or creative activity, over time, other motives may appear, and the former ones fade into the background. Sometimes an action that was previously included in an activity can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, turn into an activity with its own motive. In this case, we mark the birth of a new activity.

With age, as a person develops, the motivation of his activity changes. If a person changes as a person, then the motives of his activity are transformed. The progressive development of man is characterized by the movement of motives towards their ever greater spiritualization (from organic to material, from material to social, from social to creative, from creative to moral).

Every human activity has external and internal Components. Internal ones include anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the management of activity by the central nervous system, as well as psychological processes and conditions involved in the regulation of activity. The external components include a variety of movements associated with the practical implementation of activities.

The ratio of internal and external components of activity is not constant. With the development and transformation of activities, a systematic transition of external components to internal ones takes place. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If there are any difficulties in activity, during its restoration associated with violations of internal components, the reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of activity unfold, manifest themselves outside, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.