§3. MAIN TYPES AND KINDS OF ACTIVITIES
Human activity is not only extremely complex in content and structure, but also extremely diverse in its general varieties and specific manifestations. The term is used to characterize this diversity. limorphismtypes and activities. Moreover, it is so pronounced that the types of activity cannot be ordered and systematized on the basis of any parameter - the basis of classification. To some extent, a complete systematization of activities and, therefore, their classification requires the use of several bases - criteria for identifying types and types of activities. In relation to the category of active, the general scientific principle must be applied additional 9according to which a system, especially a complex one, requires several complementary descriptions and interpretations. Let's consider some of them.
Traditionally, it is believed that the main and psychologically main division of activity into its types is the differentiation of activity into labor, gameand educational.Labor activity differs from the two d quiet types in that it involves the receipt of any socially significant product, result, creation % called use values. For play learning activities this result is not socially significant, but individually significant; not productive, but rep ductive. It consists in the mastering by the subject of socially worked experience, knowledge, etc. The mastering of social experience occurs not only in the process of learning, although here it is expressed most clearly, fully vividly, constituted the essence of this activity. In play activity, to a lesser extent, the same process of assimilation of social experience unfolds, but it is presented here in different forms and processes. It should also be noted that the most striking specific feature of play activity is that, in contrast to learning and labor, its main mochi is the process of activity itself, and not its result.
These types of activity replace each other in togenesis and are designated by the concept of the leading type of activity for each major age stage. Leading
it is such an activity, the implementation of which determines the emergence and formation of the main psychological new formations of a person at any stage of his development.
Equally fundamental and general is the division of activities into individualand joint.Joint activity is realized, in contrast to the individual, by a collective subject, that is, by two or more people who have a common goal. Other important signs of joint activity are: spatial and temporal co-presence of participants in the activity, role and instrumental differentiation of participants in certain tasks, the presence of a controlling (organizing) component - either a leader or a leader. Joint activity is also internally heterogeneous and is subdivided into subtypes: for example, directly joint activity - “activity together” and indirectly joint activity - “Activity nearby”.
The most traditional and simple classification of species activities - according to their subject area,i.e. by professional accessories.As a result, all those professions that exist today are distinguished, as well as specialties within these professions.
A derivative of the previous, but much more generalized, is the classification of professions, according to which there are five main types of professional activity. These are professions of the following types: man - technology, man - man, man - nature, man - sign, man - artistic image.
The dichotomous division of activities into external and internal is extremely common. Moreover, under externalunderstand all types, types and processes of activity, which are accompanied by explicit, i.e. objectified, manifestations of its performing components - movements, actions, excrescence, communications and ave. Internalthe activity unfolds in the intrapsychic plane, and the term “mental activity” is often used as its synonym, which, however, is not entirely correct. There is a genetic connection between external and internal activities, since the second is formed in the process of ontogenesis on the basis of the first through the mechanism of internalization.
The main types of activity: their most important features and properties
In an article on activity as a form of human activity and its specificity, it was indicated that the main types of activity associated with the existence of an agent are:
The activity performed by the agent for himself (self-activity), through her, the agent ensures his existence;
The activity performed by the doer in favor of the “other” (official activity, service), capable of giving meaning to the existence of the doer (for it is extremely important for a person to answer his own question: “if I am alone for myself, then why am I?”, Although not always a similar question set deliberately);
An activity performed by the agent for the sake of the activity itself (play), which brings joy and fun to the subject's existence.
These varieties are revealed by considering the simplest situation in which there are: 1) the doer himself, 2) something “different” (and anything can be different - man, God, society, nature, etc.) and 3) the activity itself. In addition, it is assumed that activities are always performed for the sake of someone or for the sake of something, for the benefit of someone or something. The simplest enumeration of options allows us to identify the three named types of activity.
The mentioned article also promised to describe these varieties in more detail at another time. This article is intended to fulfill that promise. To do this, it is necessary: \u200b\u200b1) to more clearly substantiate why these types of activities are the main ones, 2) to describe the most important features and properties of these varieties, 3) to consider the ratio of these varieties with specific species human activity.
First, we will try to argue why the named varieties should be considered the main ones from a theoretical point of view, why they are most expedient to use when constructing theoretical models of society, considering social problems, etc. After all, it is obvious that society exists on the basis of a wide variety of activities: economic, political, religious, scientific, artistic, ideological, etc. Why should the main types of activity be considered self-activity, official activity and play, and not, say, economic, political, etc.?
Answering this question, let us take a closer look at the concept of cultural and historical types by N.Ya.Danilevsky, where four main types of activity are proposed as the basis of the named types: religious, cultural, political and socio-economic. Depending on the development (predominance) of a particular variety or their combination, monobasic, two-basic, three-basic and four-basic cultural and historical types are possible. Danilevsky cites Ancient Judea (religious activity) as examples of the same basic cultural and historical types, Ancient Greece (cultural activities) and Ancient Rome (political activities). The two-basic cultural-historical type, in his opinion, is contemporary Europe (cultural and political activity). And Danilevsky expresses the hope that the Slavic type will be the first complete four-basic cultural-historical type.
Regardless of how correctly specific societies are correlated with theoretically distinguished cultural-historical types (for example, Europe in the time of Danilevsky could well be considered a three-basic cultural-historical type), in methodological terms, his idea that the prevailing type of activity determines the type of society, should be considered extremely promising in theoretical studies of society. This idea is especially promising if activity-based interaction is recognized as the basis of society. For if society arises and exists on the activity of interaction of people (or, to use a more familiar expression, on the division of labor), then the properties of the prevailing activity will determine many properties of society.
However, the problem is how theoretically successful the choice (and set) of specific types of activity, in particular, those proposed by Danilevsky, can be. For as the initial elements of the theory, the selected types of activity should, if possible, satisfy at least two conditions.
First, these varieties should be as simple as possible, elementary, although it is hardly possible to achieve absolute simplicity. Secondly, they should be closely related to the existence of the agent, in fact, be manifestations of his life.
As for simplicity, it is almost obvious that the types of activities proposed by Danilevsky (religious, cultural, etc.) are too complex and heterogeneous to be used as the basis for the study of society. Thus, there are cases when it is not entirely clear how to distinguish religious activity from cultural or economic, economic from political, etc.
For example, if we take the Old Russian icon painting, then to what kind of activity, according to Danilevsky, should it be attributed? Religious, cultural or economic? Obviously, it has features of the first, and the second, and the third.
Moreover, religious, sacred texts may contain rules that govern the economic and political activities of people. And it is not always clear when it comes to economic activity, and when - to religious, since these rules are established by the prophets on behalf of higher power... In particular, M. Weber in his famous work "Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism" drew attention to the very curious fact that wealth is distributed extremely unevenly between representatives of different religions. According to him, in Baden in 1895, “for 1000 Evangelical Christians there was a taxable capital of 954,060 marks of capital, for 1000 Catholics 589,000 marks. The Jews with their 4,000,000 marks of taxation per thousand people are far ahead. " It is easy to calculate that every Jew was about four times richer than a Protestant and six to seven times richer than a Catholic. Why is there such a striking inequality in property among persons of different faiths?
In this work, Weber focused on the study of differences between the Catholic and Protestant religions in order to show that capitalism as a social phenomenon has spiritual roots in Protestant ethics. But it is no less interesting to understand why wealth is concentrated precisely among the Jews, more precisely, among the Jews? Weber somehow ignored this issue in this article, and in fact it can also be explained in the religious ethics of Judaism. Even in Christianity, its roots have been preserved. In the “Old Testament” it is said: “Do not give in growth to your brother (ie to a Jew - PS) neither silver, nor bread, nor anything else that can be given for growth. Give to a foreigner in growth, but do not give to your brother in growth, so that the Lord, your God, will bless you in everything that is done with your hands, on the land into which you are going to take possession of it. It is clear in whose hands the wealth will be, if this rule is consistently followed over the millennia.
However, the main theoretical interest for us, this example is not in whose hands the wealth and even power will be. The question is to understand whether activities according to this rule are economic, political or religious? It turns out that it is the first, and the second, and the third, since it pursues at the same time religious, economic and political goals, moreover, it is prescribed by "holy scripture." That is why, it should be recognized that for the study of society in a theoretical way, simpler, "elementary" types of activity are desirable than those proposed by Danilevsky. Again, if we recognize the activity interaction as the basis of society, then the category "activity" will certainly be at the core in social theory, and the varieties of activity should be used to build theoretical models of society.
What kinds of activity should be considered relatively simple, elementary?
Since there are an indefinite number of the most diverse attributes that an activity can have, there are an indefinite number of relatively simple varieties of it. For example, creative activities (obtaining a new result, product, etc.) and routine activities (replication according to an existing sample of a product, result, etc.), appropriating activity (appropriation of finished products of nature or those produced by other people) and activities producing (product manufacturing). Individual activities (carried out by one person) and collective activities (carried out by many figures to achieve a common goal) can be considered simple varieties. Simple types of activity can be distinguished, depending on the time of its course: past, present and future activities.
However, these simplest types of activity are not very successful for constructing theoretical models, since they do not satisfy the second condition, which was discussed above, namely, the signs that they differ in are not directly related to the life of a person (agent). In particular, creative and routine activities are qualitatively different from each other depending on the characteristics of the produced product ("new" and "copied"). The activity of appropriating and producing activity reflects the specificity of relations arising between man and nature or between people. In one case, a person appropriates something ready, in another he makes something himself. Collective and individual activities differ in the number of actors, past present and future time of implementation of activities. In all the named varieties, the actor himself or his life activity is "not visible", they are only "implied".
On the contrary, the simplest types of activity proposed above - self-activity, service activity and play - are closely related to the life of the subject, the doer, since, as already mentioned, the first ensures existence, the second gives meaning to it, and the third brings fun and joy into existence. Moreover, the first and second varieties can be called objectively necessary for the existence of society. Rather, play can be called a subjectively necessary activity. It is possible in moments of self-sufficiency of the subject, when he, having freed himself from consuming the world or serving it, freely spends his life forces in his special world, created for himself. In it, the doer is partly like God, since he freely created his own world for himself and freely acts in it.
It should be borne in mind that the named types of activity are abstractions; they act as some "streams" in the general flow of any specific activity. Nevertheless, one of these "streams" may occupy a dominant position, due to which this particular activity turns out to be an empirical expression of the corresponding abstraction. Considering that official activity and self-activity are varieties of objectively necessary activity, society exists on their basis, and one of the varieties may become predominant, which will determine the type of society.
The considered types of activity have important, in many respects opposite, signs and properties (see table).
In the first column of the table, brief descriptions of individual signs and properties of the types of activity are given, and in the following columns the presence or expression of these signs and properties in the corresponding varieties.
The game undoubtedly carries functions related to both biological (release of excess energy, compensation for aggressive impulses) and social needs (training, education, socialization). But considering the various functions of the game, J. Huizinga noted that "the game ... is supported by the consciousness of joyful relaxation outside the requirements of" everyday life ", and" genuine play ... contains a goal in itself. "
The second (also meaningful) line of the table examines the ratio of the types of activity and the instinct of self-preservation. It is quite obvious that self-activity is in agreement with him, for the function of instinct is also to ensure existence. Likewise, it is clear that official activity is often, and, at the limit, is always in conflict with this instinct. Service has as its goal the existence of a certain "other", therefore it requires the doer to humiliate himself, up to self-sacrifice. As for the game, its relation to the instinct of self-preservation can be called indefinite, because the game can take the form of a competition, a loss in which sometimes (but not necessarily) entails death.
Table
Signs and properties of the main types of activity
| Content of a trait or property | VARIETIES OF ACTIVITIES Ego activity ServiceA gameactivity |
||
| Function in human life | Ensures existence | Gives meaning to existence | Brings fun into existence |
| Attitude to the instinct of self-preservation | In accordance with the instinct of self-preservation | This instinct is often at odds with |
Relationship with instinct undefined |
| Rationality for the doer | Always subjectively rational | Often subjectively irrational for the performer |
The problem of rationality does not exist |
| External control | No external control requiredrational | External control is mandatory | External control is often needed |
| Availability of norms, rules | General, "framework", rules (norms) | Rigid, detailed rules (norms) | Strict rules (norms) |
| A system of rewards and punishments | Its presence is not required | Its presence is required | Availability is often needed |
| The presence of a solemn oath, oath | No solemn oath required | An oath is required | It is possible to have an oath |
| Development rate | Developing fast | Develops slowly | Does not develop, but changes |
| Result cost | Relatively low | Relatively high | Irrelevant |
The next line deals with the signs of rationality-irrationality of one kind or another from the point of view of the agent. At the same time, there is a well-known paradox in this regard in relation to self-activity and official activity. Why is self-activity that only ensures existence always turns out to be subjectively rational, while official activity that gives meaning to existence is often subjectively irrational for a particular performer?
The answer is simple enough. The rationality or irrationality of his own activity for the actor to a decisive extent depends on the independence of the actor in making decisions.
If the doer himself decides what takes place in self-activity, then the goal and the chain of further actions seem rational to him, although from the outside they may seem complete stupidity, absurdity. In Fowles's novel The Collector, the main character tries to win the girl's love by imprisoning her in a dungeon, perhaps forgetting that “love is free”.
On the contrary, in his official activity, an ordinary performer, since he did not make a decision about certain actions, is inclined to consider them as a senseless waste of energy because of the “stupid instructions of the authorities”. It is no coincidence that rules of conduct are developed in the army environment aimed at saving all kinds of efforts ("the soldier is asleep - the service is on", "do not rush to carry out an order, since another order may soon follow, canceling the previous one," etc.).
As for the game, its possible additional goal (for example, a prize) serves as a means to increase the intensity of the game, its inspiration, excitement, but in itself is not serious, conditional. The object of the game, as said, is in the game itself.
The following lines, which deal with the presence of external control, norms, a system of rewards and punishments and a solemn oath, are due to the previous signs - the attitude to the instinct of self-preservation and the subjective rationality of activity. This connection is especially pronounced in self-activity and service activity.
It is obvious that if the agent acts in his own interests and sets goals for himself, he does not need to be controlled from the outside and rigidly prescribed to him the rules for achieving his own goals. All that is needed is a general framework that does not allow the actor to harm others. In addition, this activity does not require a system of rewards and punishments, as well as a solemn oath. The reward or punishment in self-activity is the achievement or non-achievement of the result. Naturally, the doer does not need to swear to others that he will try to achieve the goal set for himself.
With regard to official activity, since it often contradicts the instinct of self-preservation, and the actor seems irrational, additional measures are needed to induce him to perform his duties properly.
First, clear rules are needed, the observance of which should lead to the intended purpose of performance, and in addition, their presence allows you to assess the quality of performance.
Secondly, external control is necessary so that the rules of official activity are observed, without which norms that violate its proper performance will certainly come into use (examples are hazing, hazing, etc.).
Thirdly, the existence of a system of rewards and punishments “takes into account” the instinct of self-preservation and the subjective irrationality of official activity (fear of punishment “mutes” the instinct of self-preservation, and the reward introduces an element of subjective rationality).
Finally, the solemn oath additionally guarantees that the agent who has received additional powers related to the duties of official activity will use the powers only for the good of the “other” for whose sake it is performed. That is why the performance of official activities very often begins with the fact that the activist vows to perform it honestly and conscientiously, regardless of possible inconveniences or dangers for himself personally (“not sparing his blood and life itself,” as it sounded in the text of the military oath of the Soviet era). Breaking the oath almost always leads to dire consequences for the official duty, and if the figure is in a high position, then for society as a whole. In particular, the catastrophic development of events in recent Russian history was largely caused by the perjury of Gorbachev and Yeltsin. The first did nothing to protect the Constitution of the USSR, to be the guarantor of which he swore. The second - committed a coup d'état, grossly violating the Constitution of the RSFSR, to which he also swore to be the guarantor, and by shooting the legally elected legislative body (the Supreme Soviet).
As for the game, since there is no clear and definite correlation with the instinct of self-preservation and a sign of rationality, there is also no strict need for external control, a solemn oath, a system of rewards and punishments, although sometimes, especially in the case of collective games, they are possible and in demand. However, strict and precise rules of the game are absolutely necessary, otherwise it is impossible. Breaking the rules of the game instantly destroys the game, turning it into a form of cheating. If fraud is detected, the player is punished by the gaming community.
The presence of norms brings work and play closer together, which makes it possible, under certain conditions, to turn the former into the latter. The main condition for the transformation of official activity into a game is the forgetting of its purpose, and, consequently, of its meaning. This, obviously, was the way of transforming pagan cult rituals into modern folk holidays associated with rituals, dressing up, etc., as well as some children's games (burners), the latter being gradually forgotten. Currently, the existence of norms allows turning official activities into "bureaucratic games", when the real meaning of the service is emasculated, and the activity of an official turns into endless writing of certificates, reports, instructions, etc., which in reality are almost completely unnecessary for anyone.
The following signs in the table - the speed of development and the relative cost of the result - are due to the efficiency and performance of the presence (absence) of strict norms and control bodies. It is clear that self-activity is capable of rapid development (the actor freely chooses methods and means of achieving the goal). The result achieved on its basis is relatively cheap, because its cost includes only the costs of the actor himself.
In official activity, these signs are opposite. She is always conservative and develops extremely slowly. This is due to the fact that official activities are always performed on the basis of certain instructions or patterns of activity, enshrined in a document or in a custom. It is extremely difficult to change these instructions or samples. After all, first, someone must come to the conclusion that these instructions no longer correspond to the changed reality. Then someone must take the initiative to abolish obsolete and develop new instructions, and the initiative, as you know, is punishable. Finally, it is necessary to teach the whole bulk of performers to work according to the new instructions. And this is perhaps the hardest part.
In addition, since official activities for their accurate and clean performance require the presence of control bodies, this leads to additional material costs and determines the "high cost" of the result of performance.
The concept of "development" is practically inapplicable to the game. The rules of the game are set freely either by the player himself or by the gaming community, but during the game they are strictly enforced. They can be changed in the future, but then the game itself changes (although it may have the same name). A game in its pure form does not imply a value either. She is a manifestation of the participants' excess energy. The so-called "professional games" are no longer games. For the participants, they can be an ego activity or service activity, and the result - a prize or an award - is payment for demonstrating their physical or mental abilities and skills.
The recognition of the named types of activity as basic and elementary does not remove, however, the problem that arose when considering the types of activity proposed by N. Ya. Danilevsky. We are talking about the problem of correlating abstractly distinguished types of activity with specific types of activity. Indeed, how to determine whether this or that specific activity, say, scientific or industrial, self-activity, official activity or a game?
In answering this question, one should bear in mind the following circumstances.
First, the answer to it depends to a certain extent on the point of view of the actor himself. If there are no external circumstances that prevent the actor from considering his activity in one way or another, then he himself determines its meaning, "refers" to one of the simplest varieties. So, if he considers his activity as self-activity, service or game, then it is. Tom Sawyer managed to turn the whitewashing of the fence from a service (in relation to him) activity into a game for others, and, ultimately, into self-activity, while taking a leadership role in relation to other children.
Second, the answer depends on the point of view of society as a whole. Certain types of activity (military, political, partly medical, etc.) society is inclined to consider as service activities. Empirically, this is confirmed by the existence of a system of awards and punishments, a solemn oath, instructions. And formally, the point of view of society is stronger. In reality, the position of society is not always dominant. A formal servant is quite easily able to avoid control in practice and turn a specific official activity into self-activity (the phenomenon of corruption, etc.), while using official powers for personal purposes. The society is left with a mechanism of sanctions to bring service activities to a "normal" state.
Thirdly, there may be different points of view on a specific activity among participants who are relatively equal in legal force. For example, employment may be viewed by a hired employee as self-employment (a way to provide for himself and his family with a livelihood), while the employer may consider it a job. In this case, the "shares" of one or another main variety in a particular activity are determined by the contract. In the event of a dispute between the employer and the employee, the "share" of official or ego activity is determined by the court, clarifying the mutual obligations of the parties.
Finally, the most favorable case is also possible when the points of view of the actor and society coincide. With regard to self-activity, this most often refers to economic activity or trade, i.e. to specific types of activity that ensure the existence of the actor (and through him, and society as a whole). In official activity, such a coincidence is observed in the case of a "vocation", when the figure is completely given to the official duty. Often the points of view of the society and the actor regarding the game coincide.
So, within the framework of the activity-value approach to the study of social processes and phenomena, the main types of activity are self-activity, service activity and play, since they are relatively simple and directly related to the existence of the agent. Self-activity ensures existence, office activity is capable of giving meaning to existence, and play brings fun and joy into it. Self-activity and official activity are objectively necessary varieties, because any society exists on their combination, and play is subjectively necessary. In addition to the functions that these types of activity perform in the existence of the actor, they differ in other important properties: the attitude of each of them to the instinct of self-preservation, the rigidity of regulation, the speed of development, the presence of a system of rewards and punishments, etc. A specific type of activity can be correlated with the abstract depending on:
1) the point of view of society,
2) the point of view of the agent,
3) agreements between the participants in the interaction, when the agreement between them determines the "share" of each type in a specific activity.
The points of view of society and the leader on a specific type of activity may or may not coincide. In the latter case, the point of view of society turns out to be formally stronger, but in reality the situation is often quite the opposite.
An extremely important property of self-activity and service activity is their ability to develop, since the rate of development of society largely depends on this. The presence or absence of a system of rewards and punishments is an empirical indicator to which of the two objectively necessary varieties, in the opinion of society, a particular type of activity belongs.
Literature
1. Smirnov P.I. Activity as a form of human activity: the specifics of human activity / Theoretical journal Credo new. 2010. No. 3 (63). Pp. 139-155.
Main activities
Depending on the purpose, content and forms, three main types of activity are distinguished: play, study and work. All three types of activity are characteristic of a person, regardless of age, however, at different periods of life, they manifest themselves in different ways according to their purpose, content, form and meaning. At preschool age, the leading activity is play, at school age - learning, and in mature age - work.
Play and learning are common to both humans and animals. However, in animals, the basis of these types of activity is instincts, while in humans they are determined by social conditions of life, differ qualitatively, much more complex and richer in content and form.
Labor by nature and content is a socio-historical phenomenon. In the process of work, a person arose and developed as a conscious social being. A characteristic feature of all types of human activity is that they are often associated with speech activity. The latter contributes to the development of the content and forms of all types of activity, their purposefulness and motivation.
PLAYING ACTIVITY is a type of activity, the product of which is its very process.
The main form of manifestation of the activity of a child of preschool age is play activity is the main means of cognizing the external world, its reflection in the form of sensations, perceptions, ideas, etc. But it is different from study and work. In play, the child is fond of the main process that makes her enjoy it. As soon as interest in the game disappears, the child stops it.
In the play of young children, goals are not stable. This is manifested in the fact that young children lose goals in the game and easily move from one game to another. But in the process of development and education, the purposefulness in the play activity of children increases, the goals in the play become more stable. It is rightly noted that play is a school of thought, feeling and will. In games, not only are manifested, but also all the mental processes and properties of children, observation, attentiveness, thoughtfulness, perseverance, courage, determination, skill, skills, abilities are formed. In playing activity, not only mental, but also physical development of children takes place, physical strength, dexterity, speed and accuracy of movements develop. In games, all the properties of the child's personality are formed, in particular, such moral traits as collectivism, friendship, sociability, truthfulness, honesty, etc. Therefore, the games of preschoolers play an important role in preparing them for schooling.
At school age, the game has a more complex and straightforward character. Schoolchildren are dominated by didactic games, in which the goal is clearly manifested: to successfully play the game, defeat a partner, develop the appropriate physical and mental properties. In adolescence and adolescence, bad habits can arise, for example, gambling.
Involving children in sports, interesting things will be an important means of preventing the seizure of harmful games.
LEARNING ACTIVITY is a type of activity, the product of which is knowledge, skills and abilities.
Education is the main activity of schoolchildren; active, conscious and purposeful activity, consisting in the assimilation of knowledge developed by mankind in order to prepare children for future independent work. Education is not limited to school age. A person learns all his life. To this she is prompted by the development of science, technology, social life. The scientific, technical and social progress characteristic of the 20th century requires a significant replenishment and restructuring of the systems of general education and special professional knowledge obtained in secondary schools and vocational educational institutions.
Influence aimed at increasing the educational activity of people, stimulating a responsible, interested attitude to the implementation of educational tasks, as well as the orientation of educational work to achieve specific goals (setting educational tasks);
Transfer, communication of information (story, explanation, display, demonstration);
Monitoring and evaluating the results of activities - knowledge, skills and abilities.
Educational activity is one of the aspects of pedagogical interaction, a kind of indicator of the appropriateness of the teacher's pedagogical techniques. Learning activity has the same subject as pedagogical activity, a person who learns, the same goal - the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities and the achievement of useful results.
Learning activity consists of learning activities, each of which is a certain form of cognitive and practical activity, solving a certain part of the educational task. All training activities are divided into four main groups:
Sensory-perceptual, associated with obtaining educational information (visual observation in the process of showing, listening to a story and a lecture, the desire to highlight and fix the features of the object under study, etc.);
Mental learning actions necessary for the independent solution of learning tasks and obtaining such learning information, which is the result of mental study, comprehension of already existing knowledge;
Complex practical actions, which consist in the fact that, together with internal cognitive (mental) activity, they simultaneously perform practical actions (movements): they work out a particular technique, perform repairs, disassemble and assemble mechanisms, radio equipment, etc.;
Mnemonic learning actions that ensure the consolidation and long-term preservation of the received different ways educational information. They are usually not independent, but organically combined with the previous ones.
In the process of learning, his goals gradually become more complicated, but at the same time they are differentiated. Along with general educational goals, practical goals appear - preparing children for life, mastering practical knowledge, skills and abilities. Polytechnic education and vocational education are carried out on the basis of general education knowledge. General education (knowledge of language, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, history) is becoming increasingly necessary for vocational education, training of creative specialists.
The successful education of children in school depends to a large extent on the awareness of the goals of learning and the motives that guide them. In teaching, social and cognitive motivation is noticeably actualized: the first - through the awareness of the role and necessity of knowledge for life and work, the second - in relation to the content of knowledge, in interest in them.
An important condition for success in mastering knowledge is the readiness and preparedness of the student for learning. The readiness of a student to learn is in his psychological readiness for this, in the desire and ability to learn, in the presence of the necessary development for this. The ability to learn is manifested in the fact that the child understands the teacher's explanations and is guided by them, completing tasks, independently performs these tasks, controls himself in accordance with the teacher's instructions and rules, and not over how someone else completed the task. Students who show independence in learning learn better and develop more successfully.
The student's readiness for learning is manifested in specific knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for mastering the educational material.
Education in school requires organization and discipline from the student, daily systematic work. In this way, the learning activity of a schoolchild differs from the play activity of a preschooler and approaches work activity.
The assimilation of knowledge by students depends on their activity in learning. Learning is about personal development. Learning, the child develops, and developing, acquires new opportunities - to understand and assimilate complex knowledge. A child develops more successfully when, in the learning process, her educational independence is activated, when the child becomes a subject, not an object of learning, that is, he knows how to set learning objectives and tries to solve them successfully. In the development of personality, an extremely important role is played by the activation of mental activity, and not only attention, perception, memory, imagination.
LABOR is a conscious human activity aimed at creating material and spiritual benefits. It is a necessary condition for human existence and development.
By setting in motion the natural organs and forces available to her, man makes tools of labor and with their help modifies the material of nature, gives them a form suitable for his own life, satisfying his various needs.
Labor is a living unity of the physical and mental. In the process of labor, various physical and mental properties of a person are activated and manifested. Depending on the content of labor, its mental components acquire features. The activity of a locksmith, tractor driver, teacher or composer requires specific mental properties. But there are mental properties of the personality, common to all types of labor activity, although they are manifested in each of its varieties in different ways.
The first and necessary condition for any work is the presence of a goal: to create a certain product.
A characteristic feature of labor is that a person assumes its results, imagines the material that will be used, determines the methods and sequence of his actions. This is how her labor actions differ from the actions of animals. Before building something, a person creates in his imagination an image of what he will do. At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that even before its beginning existed in the imagination of a person. The more difficult a work task is, the higher the requirements are for its execution to the human psyche.
Work requires appropriate training. Knowledge, skills and abilities to work are acquired during training and preliminary training. To master certain specialties, it is necessary to study at a higher school after graduating from high school. It takes a lot of time to master highly qualified production specialties.
Labor requires exertion of physical and mental strength, overcoming difficulties, self-control and other volitional qualities. Purposeful will is needed both in physical and mental work during the entire time of its implementation. It is especially necessary when the work does not capture the content or methods of implementation. Labor is the source of a variety of human emotions. In the process of work, a person experiences successes and failures. In the case of a positive attitude to work, these experiences induce her to even greater stress.
The success of a person's labor depends on the clarity of the goal that it sets for itself, on the maturity of the motives that induce it to work, and the associated attitude to work duties, on the compliance of its abilities, general and special training with the requirements of labor. Such individual psychological properties of a person as accuracy and discipline play a very important role in work.
In the process of social and historical development of human life, a huge number of types of labor arose.
The variety of types of human labor is divided into physical and mental labor. Physical labor includes various types of production and technical activities. Its subject is the material that nature gives and which is processed with the help of various tools. Physical labor requires a certain use of a person's physical strength, tension of her muscular system. The result of such labor is material products necessary to satisfy human needs. The result of mental work is images, thoughts, ideas, projects, knowledge embodied in material forms of existence (literary and musical works, drawings, carvings, etc.).
Physical and mental work covers a huge number of different professions and specialties.
Creative activity. Any physical and mental work under certain social conditions can become a creative activity.
In various types of labor, creativity has certain characteristics due to the content and nature of the activity, its circumstances and the individual characteristics of the employee. At the same time, all types of creative activity have common features.
Creative activity is conditioned by the needs of society. Awareness of these needs is the source of various designs, ideas, projects. Creative activity begins with the emergence of a certain idea, in particular: to change the methods, methods of work in a particular industry, create a new tool, design a new machine, carry out a certain scientific experiment, write a work of art, create a piece of music, draw a picture, etc.
To implement a creative idea, preparatory work is needed - thinking over its content, finding out the details, ways of implementing it and collecting the necessary materials. Such preparatory work is characteristic of the creativity of a designer-inventor, scientist, writer, artist. It is often long lasting.
After the preparatory work, the implementation of the creative idea takes place, which can also last for different times, depending on the content of the task, its complexity, the preparation of the personality and the conditions of creative work.
The implementation of a creative idea is a large and intense work that requires the participation and rise of all the forces of a person, the maximum concentration of her consciousness on the subject of creativity. This concentration is so high that the employee, carried away by the task, does not notice what is happening around him. Concentration requires the participation of a person's cognitive and volitional forces.
Systematic hard and hard work is a defining condition for the success of creativity. Under this condition, such moments of creative upsurge more often arise, which are called inspiration and in the presence of which they especially successfully find new ways of solving problems, new and productive ideas arise, create central images of works of art, etc. Inspiration is characterized by the exertion of all the efforts of the employee and the emotional passion for the subject of creativity and productive work on it. Inspiration does not arise before the start of work, but during it as a certain consequence of it. It follows that in order to successfully achieve a goal, you need to work systematically and regularly, and not wait for inspiration to come. According to P. Tchaikovsky, inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit linkuvats. It arises in the process of hard work.
Creative activity is affected by the feeling of the novelty of the case, the need for it of the present. There is a mobilization of spiritual forces and an unconscious, intuitive appearance of new images, methods of action in solving the problem.
The success of creative work depends on the degree to which a person owns the techniques and techniques of work, how it relates to the results of work. Creative workers are characterized by a critical, demanding attitude towards their works. It is, in particular, characteristic of outstanding poets and writers. Fr. de Balzac revised his works twelve or more times, often before identification he did not change, correcting them. The same can be said about engineers, scientists.
Test questions:
What are activities?
What is the microstructure of activity?
Describe the macrostructure of the activity.
What is the meaning of need and motive in activity?
What is the purpose of human activity?
Expand the main types of human activities.
What movements are used in activities?
What is action?
What are objective actions?
What are mental actions?
What is the process of forming knowledge, skills and abilities?
What is knowledge?
What are skills and abilities?
How is the transfer of skills manifested?
What is interoreception?
Expand play as an activity.
Describe the learning activity.
How is work manifested as an activity?
What is the difference between mental and physical labor?
How does activity affect the human psyche?
Literature:
Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K. A. Activity and personality psychology. - M .: Nauka, 1980. Asmolov A. G. Activity and installation. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. un-that, 1979. Bespalov B. Y. Action: Psychological mechanisms of visual thinking. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. un-that, 1984.
Brushlinsky A.V. Activity, action and psychic as a process // Vopr. Psychologists. - 1984, -№5.
Variy M.I. General psychology: Textbook. allowance for stud. psychol. and teacher, specialties. - Lviv: Edge, 2005.
Volkov A. M., Mikadze Yu. V., Solntseva G. N. Activity: structure and regulation. Psychological analysis. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. un-that, 1987.
Davydov V.V., Markova A.K. The concept of educational activity of schoolchildren // Vopr. psychology. -1981. - No. 6.
Kovalev V.Y. Motives of behavior and activity. - M .: Nauka, 1988.
Konopkin OA Psychological mechanisms of activity regulation. - M .: Nauka, 1980.
Leontiev A.P. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M .: Politizdat, 1975.
Lomov B.F., Surkov E.N., Anticipation in the structure of activity. - M .: Nauka, 1980.
Podolskiy A.Y. The formation of mental activity in the practice of professional
learning // Vopr. psychology. -1985. - No. 5.
Elkonin D. B. Psychology of the game. - M .: Pedagogy, 1978.
1. Traditionally, it is considered that the main and psychologically main division of activity into its types is the differentiation of activity into labor, educational and play. Labor activity differs from the other two types in that it involves the receipt of any socially significant product, result. For play and learning activities, this result is not socially, but individually significant and consists in the subject's assimilation of socially developed experience, knowledge, etc. Finally, the clearest specific feature of play activity is that, in contrast to learning and labor, its main motive is the process of activity itself, not its result. These types of activity replace each other in ontogenesis and are designated by the concept of "leading type" of activity for each of the main age stages. Leading ...
- this is such an activity, the implementation of which determines the emergence and formation of the main psychological neoplasms of a person at any stage of his development.
2. Equally fundamental and general is the separation of individual and joint activities. Joint activity is realized, in contrast to the individual, by the so-called collective subject, that is, by two or more people who have a common motive and a common goal. Other important signs of joint activity are the spatial and temporal presence of participants in the activity, role-based and instrumental differentiation of participants in certain tasks, the presence of a controlling (organizing) component - either a leader or a leader. Joint activity is also internally heterogeneous and is subdivided into subtypes: for example, directly joint activity - “activity together” and indirectly joint activity - “activity nearby”.
3. The most traditional is, apparently, the classification of activities according to their subject area, ie, according to professional affiliation. As a result, all the professions that exist today are distinguished, as well as specializations within these professions. So, there is a classification developed by E. A. Klimov, where five main types of professional activity are distinguished: "man - technology", "man - man", "man - nature", "man - sign", "man - artistic image" ...
4. It is customary to divide activities into executive and managerial (organizational) ones. The first is characterized by the fact that the subject of labor directly affects his object, although he contacts with other subjects. The second (managerial) usually does not provide for such a direct impact. It, however, necessarily presupposes the organization of other people by one subject of activity, as well as the hierarchy of their subordination.
5. In the applied sense, it is important to divide the activity into direct and indirect. In the first case, a person directly affects the object and just as directly receives information from it. In the second case, information about the subject of labor is transmitted to a person through mediating links: in the form of tables on the screen or in any other symbolic form. This is, for example, an operator-type activity.
