Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, K. is reviving during the Enlightenment.

The new, educational K. coexisted throughout the 18th century. with enlightenment realism, and by the end of the century it became again the dominant artistic trend.

Enlighteners largely continue the traditions of the 17th century. They turned out to be close to the position of a person, expressed in K., who consciously refers to the world and to himself, is able to subordinate his aspirations and passions to social and moral duty; pathos of civilization; rationalistic concept artistic creation.

However, the socio-political orientation of educational K. is changing. In the traditions of classicism, Voltaire creates tragedies imbued with the struggle against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and the pathos of freedom. The appeal to antiquity as to the world of ideal prototypes, which was the essence of K., including the educational one, had deep roots in the ideology of the Enlightenment. Where the enlighteners sought to penetrate beyond the external empiric of life, to go beyond the framework of private life, they found themselves, as a rule, in the world of ideal abstractions, since in all their constructions they proceeded from an isolated individual and the essence of a person was not sought in the social conditions of his being , not in history, but in abstractly understood human nature.

The literature of the Great French Revolution, which clothed heroic aspirations in ancient myths and legends (the work of M. Zh. Chenier and others), is closely connected with the educational K. In the legends of antiquity, the leaders of the revolution, according to K. Marx, “found ideals and artistic forms, illusions , necessary for them in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to keep their inspiration at the height of the great historical tragedy "(K. Marx and F. Engels, ibid., vol. 8, p. 120).

Under the influence of French literature, capitalism also develops in other European countries: in England (A. Pop, J. Addison), Italy (V. Alfieri, and partly Ugo Foscolo), and Germany (IK Gottshed). Gottsched's classicist works, entirely focused on French models, did not leave a significant trace in German literature, and only in the second half of the 18th century. a new German ceramics was formed as an original artistic phenomenon (the so-called Weimar classicism).

Unlike French, it brings to the fore the moral and aesthetic problems. Its foundations were laid by I.I.Vinkelmann, but it reached its highest flowering with I.V. Goethe and F. Schiller in the Weimar period of their work. German poets opposed the "noble simplicity", harmony and artistic perfection of the Greek classics, which arose under the conditions of polis democracy, to the squalor of German reality and the entire modern civilization crippling man. Schiller, and partly Goethe, sought in art the main means of educating a harmonious personality and, turning to antiquity, sought to create a new, modern, high-style literature capable of fulfilling this task.

In the era of the Napoleonic empire, Kiev lost its living progressive content. He was characterized by external official pomp and splendor, cold and dead academicism. Nevertheless, as an epigone current, it existed in France until the 30-40s. 19th century

In the middle of the 18th century. a new direction in K. arises, corresponding to educational K. in literature and developing initially in polemics with Rococo. In architecture, they are now increasingly abandoning rigid planning schemes, striving to emphasize the constructive meaning of the order, special attention is paid to the interior and flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the "English" park becomes the ideal setting for a new type of classicist building.

Huge influence on K. in the 18th century. provided the development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (especially the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii), as well as the theoretical works of I.I.Vinkelmann, I.V. Goethe, F. Militia.

In the French architecture of this era, new architectural types emerged: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a laconic-monumental public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Soufflot). Civic pathos and lyrical daydreaming are combined in different ways in the sculptures of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falconet, J. A. Houdon, historical and mythological painting of J. M. Vien, and the decorative landscapes of J. Robert.

On the eve of the Great French Revolution, a striving for the harsh lapidarity of forms, for impressive didactic images arises in architecture, architects increasingly turn to the motives of the Greek archaic, the art of Ancient Egypt, sometimes to the orderless system (buildings and projects by K.N. Ledoux, E.L. Bull , J. J. Lekeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late K., or Empire style.

In K.'s painting, the greatest representative of the revolutionary trend was J.L. David, whose work is saturated with courageous drama and the solemnity of the figurative system. In the epoch of Napoleon I, features of lush representativeness (Ch. Persier, P. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin) intensified in the architecture of the French Empire style, which often led to an excessive refinement of details, which also affected the decorative and applied arts. The painting of late K., despite the appearance of individual major masters (D. Ingres), degenerates into an official apologetic or sentimental erotic salon direction.

Sensitive to the spirit of the era, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin compared Russia in the 18th century with a ship launched "with the sound of an ax and the thunder of cannons." "The pounding of an ax" can be understood in different ways: either as the scope of construction, alteration of the country, when St. Petersburg, from the shores of which the ship departed, still resembled a hastily knocked together theatrical scenery, had not yet dressed in granite and bronze for centuries; whether the knock of the ax meant that they were in a great hurry to launch the ship, and work continued on it, already leaving; or it was the sound of an ax chopping off recalcitrant heads. And the "crew" of this ship was in a hurry to enter Europe: hastily cut the ropes connecting the ship with its native shore, with the past, forgetting traditions, consigning to oblivion cultural values \u200b\u200bthat seemed barbaric in the eyes of "enlightened" Europe. Russia was moving away from Russia.

And yet you can't get away from yourself. You can change your Russian dress for a German one, cut your beard and learn Latin. There are external traditions, and there are internal ones, which are not visible to us ourselves, developed by our ancestors over hundreds and hundreds of years. What has changed in the 18th century? Much, but the deepest, most intangible and most important national values \u200b\u200bremained, migrated from ancient history to the new, from ancient Russian literature they imperceptibly, but confidently entered the literature of the 18th century. This is a reverent attitude to the written word, belief in its truth, belief in what a word can correct, teach, enlighten; it is a constant striving to see the world with “spiritual eyes” and create images of people of high spirituality; it is inexhaustible patriotism; this is a close connection with folk poetry. Writing never became a profession in Russia, it was and remains a vocation, literature was and remains a guide to a correct, high life.

According to an established tradition, from the 18th century, we begin the countdown of new Russian literature. From that time on, Russian literature began to move towards European literature, in order to finally merge into it already in the 19th century. The so-called "fine literature", that is, fiction, the art of words, stands out from the general stream. Fiction, author's imagination, amusement are encouraged here. The author - a poet, playwright, prose writer - is no longer a scribe, not a compiler, not a fixer of events, but a creator, creator of artistic worlds. In the 18th century, the time of the author's literature begins, the truth of what is described, not adherence to the canons, not the similarity with models, but, on the contrary, the originality, the uniqueness of the writer, the flight of thought and fantasy, begins to be appreciated. However, such literature was just being born, and Russian writers at first also followed the traditions and models, the "rules" of art.

One of the first cultural acquisitions of Russia from Europe was classicism... It was a very harmonious, understandable and uncomplicated system of artistic principles, quite suitable for Russia in the early and mid-18th century. Usually classicism arises where absolutism is strengthened and flourishes - the unlimited power of the monarch. So it was in France in the 17th century, so it was in Russia in the 18th century.

Reason and order should dominate both human life and art. A literary work is the result of the author's imagination, but at the same time, a creation that is reasonably organized, logically, according to the rules. Art should demonstrate the triumph of order and reason over the chaos of life, just as the state personifies reason and order. Therefore, art also has a great educational value. Classicism divides everything literary genres into "high" genres and "low" ones. The first include tragedy, epic, ode. They describe events of national importance and the following characters: generals, monarchs, ancient heroes. "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable show the life of people of the middle class. Each genre has its own educational meaning: tragedy creates a role model, and, for example, an ode glorifies the deeds of modern heroes - commanders and kings, "low" genres ridicule the vices of people.

The originality of Russian classicism was already manifested in the fact that from the very beginning it began to actively intervene in modern life. It is significant that, unlike France, the path of classicism in our country begins not with tragedies on ancient themes, but with topical satire. The initiator of the satirical trend was Antioch Dmitrievich Cantemir (1708-1744). In his passionate satire (accusatory poems), he denounces the nobles who evade fulfilling their duty to the state, to their deserved ancestors. Such a nobleman does not deserve respect. The focus of Russian classicist writers is the education and upbringing of an enlightened person who continues the work of Peter I. And Kantemir, in his satire, constantly refers to this theme, which is cross-cutting for the entire 18th century.

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) went down in the history of Russian literature as the creator of odes, solemn poems on "high" themes. The purpose of the ode is glorification, and Lomonosov glorifies Russia, her power and wealth, her present and future greatness under the enlightened leadership of a wise monarch.

In an ode dedicated to the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna (1747), the author turns to the new queen, but the glorification turns into a lesson, a "lesson to the kings." The new monarch should be worthy of his predecessor, Peter the Great, the rich country he inherited, and therefore he should patronize the sciences, maintain "beloved silence", that is, peace: Lomonosov's odes glorify both the achievements of science and the greatness of God.

Having "borrowed" classicism from the West, Russian writers nevertheless introduced into it the traditions of Old Russian literature. This is patriotism and edification. Yes, tragedy created the ideal of a person, a hero, a role model. Yes, satire made fun of. Yes, the ode glorified. But, setting an example to follow, ridiculing, glorifying, the writers lectured. It was this edifying attitude that made the works of Russian classicists not an abstract art, but an interference in contemporary life.

However, until now we have named only the names of Kantemir and Lomonosov. And VK Trediakovsky, AP Sumarokov, VI Maikov, MM Kheraskov, DI Fonvizin paid tribute to classicism. G.R.Derzhavin and many others. Each of them contributed something of his own to Russian literature, and each deviated from the principles of classicism - so rapid was the development of 18th century literature.

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1717-1777) - one of the founders of the Russian classicist tragedy, the subjects for which he drew from Russian history. Thus, the main characters of the tragedy "Sinav and Truvor" are the Novgorod prince Sinav and his brother Truvor, as well as Ilmena, with whom they both are in love. Ilmena reciprocates Truvor. Devoured by jealousy, Sinav persecutes his beloved, forgetting about the duty of a just monarch. Ilmena marries Sinava, because her father is a nobleman, and she is a man of duty. Unable to endure the separation, expelled from the city of Truvor, and then Ilmen, commit suicide. The reason for the tragedy is that Prince Sinav did not curb his passion, could not subordinate feelings to reason, duty, and this is exactly what is required of a person in classical works.
But if the tragedies of Sumarokov fit into the general rules of classicism, then in love lyrics he was a true innovator, where, as you know, feelings always prevail over reason. What is especially noteworthy, in poetry Sumarokov relies on the traditions of folk female lyric songs, and often it is the woman who is the heroine of his poems. Literature sought to go beyond the range of themes and images prescribed by classicism. And Sumarokov's love lyrics are a breakthrough to the "inner" person, interesting not because he is a citizen, a public figure, but because he carries in himself a whole world of feelings, experiences, suffering, love.

Along with classicism, the ideas of the Enlightenment came to Russia from the West. All evil comes from ignorance - the enlighteners believed. They considered tyranny, injustice of laws, inequality of people, and often the church as ignorance. The ideas of the Enlightenment echoed in literature. The ideal of an enlightened nobleman was especially dear to Russian writers. Let's remember Starodum from the comedy Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744 (1745) - 1792) "Minor" and his statements. Monologues and remarks of the hero, the resonator, the mouthpiece of the author's ideas, reveal the educational program. It boils down to the requirement of justice in the broadest sense - from government to property management. The author believes that justice will prevail when the laws and the people who obey them are virtuous. And this requires the education of enlightened, moral, educated people.

One of the most famous books of the 18th century, A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, is imbued with enlightening ideas. Radishcheva(1749-1802), the author of this work, Catherine the Great called "a rebel worse than Pugachev." The book is organized in the form of travel notes, life observations, sketches and reflections, which lead the author to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe injustice of the whole system of life, starting with autocracy.

Literature of the 18th century is looking more and more closely not at clothes and actions, not at social status and civic obligations, but at the soul of a person, in the world of his feelings. Literature with the 18th century is forgiven under the sign of "sensitivity". On the basis of educational ideas, a literary direction grows - sentimentalism... Do you remember a little story Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) "Poor Liza", which became to some extent a turning point for Russian literature. This story proclaimed the inner world of a person as the main theme of art, demonstrating the spiritual equality of all people as opposed to social inequality. Karamzin laid the foundation for Russian prose, cleared the literary language of archaisms, and the narrative of bombast. He taught Russian writers independence, because true creativity is a deeply personal matter, impossible without inner freedom. But inner freedom also has its outward manifestations: writing becomes a profession, an artist can henceforth not bind himself to service, for creativity is the most worthy state field.

"Life and poetry are one," V. A. Zhukovsky proclaims. "Live - as you write, write - as you live," KN Batyushkov will pick up. These poets will step from the 18th century into the 19th century, their work is already another story, the history of Russian literature of the 19th century.

You will learn all about the representatives of classicism by reading this article.

Representatives of classicism

What is classicism?

Classicism Is a style in art that is based on imitation of the standards of Antiquity. The flowering of the direction belongs to the XVII-XIX centuries. It reflects the desire for integrity, simplicity, and consistency.

Representatives of Russian classicism

Classicism in Russia appeared at the beginning of the 18th century from the moment of the transformations of Peter I and the publication of the theory of "Three Calms" by Lomonosov and the reform of Trediakovsky. The most prominent representatives of this trend are:

Antioch Dmitrievich Cantemir,
Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov
Ivan Ivanovich Chemnitser.

Russian architecture mixed Russian baroque and Byzantine culture. The main representatives of classicism in architecture - Eropkin, Kazakov, Zemtsov, Rossi, Korobov, Montferrand and Stasov.

In painting, the smoothness of forms is emphasized, and chiaroscuro and line are the main elements of the form. Representatives of classicism in painting: I. Akimov, P. Sokolov, K. Lorrain and N. Poussin. Lorrain created landscapes in which he depicted the connection between nature and man, their harmony and interaction. And Poussin painted masterpieces depicting heroic deeds in a historical style.

Representatives of classicism in Russian literature

The brightest representatives of classicism in literature: Sumarokov, Trediakovsky, Kantemir, Lomonosov. A little more detail about each of them. Trediakovsky went down in history as a man who revealed the essence of classicism. But Lomonosov did an excellent job on the artistic form. Sumarokov is the founder of the dramatic system of classicism. His famous work "Dmitry the Pretender" revealed the opposition to the tsarist regime.

It should be noted that all subsequent well-known representatives of classicism studied under Lomonosov. He owns the design of the rules of versification and the processing of the grammar of the Russian language. This writer introduced the principles of classicism into Russian literature. He divided all words into three main groups ("three calm"):

The first group is distinguished by solemnity and grandeur. It is dominated by the old Russian vocabulary. Odes, tragedies, heroic epics fit into it.
The second group included elegies, dramas, satire.
The third group included comedies and fables.

Outstanding representatives of classicism divided their heroes into positive (who always win) and negative characters. The plot was usually based on love triangle, the struggle of men for the possession of a woman. The action of the works is limited in time (no more than 3 days) and takes place in one place.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which found vivid expression in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art (Aristotle, Horace), taking it as an ideal aesthetic model, the "golden age".

In Russia, classicism arose in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calmness", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are devoid of individual traits, since they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic signs that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been in the focus of attention of Russian classicist writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that presuppose an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality: comedy (D.I.Fonvizin), satire (A.D. Kantemir), fable (A.P. Sumarokov, I.I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G.R.Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes "Anacreontic songs" as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities.

The originality of Russian classicism

Classicism on Russian soil from the moment of its inception was marked by features of originality: this was especially clearly manifested in the work of Lomonosov with his craving for baroque hyperbolism, saturation with the power and intensity of thought and feeling that went beyond the rationalism of the 17th-18th centuries. In the later period, Sumarokov's classicism acquired a greater affinity with other European national variants of it.

The political ideology of Peter the Great's time, based, on the one hand, on the fundamental principles of the preceding Russian literature - its publicism, civic spirit, patriotic pathos, thus turns out to be associated with national cultural traditions; on the other hand, it is affirmed on the philosophical foundations of European educational thought of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. and finds expression in the artistic system of classicism. Therefore, already in the period of early formation, Russian classicism had a number of significant differences with European, in particular French, classicism. The most prominent French poet-satirist N. Boileau, the author of "Poetic Art" - the theoretical code of classicism, was sharply hostile to all forms of the national poetic tradition, considering it a manifestation of the "plebeian" principle he hated. In building new literature French classicists relied on ancient art. Unlike European classicism, which deliberately cultivated the rationalistic art of the educated classes of society and deliberately repulsed from contact with the "unreasonable" creativity of the masses, Russian classicism proceeded from other positions on the issue of the previous national culture.

Interest in their own "antiquity" - ancient Russian literature and culture was a characteristic feature of the emerging new Russian literature. And this feature of early classicism determined the uniqueness of the further development of Russian literature. For all the complexity of the movement of the historical and literary process of the XVIII century. the appeal of writers to national themes, to the artistic traditions of Ancient Rus played a role in the formation of the ideological and stylistic features of the works of Russian literature of the most diverse literary directions... At the same time, already in the XVIII century. with the name of Peter I began to associate "suppression" of national traditions in culture and literature, because his reforms were a sharp "leap" to European education and a complete distance from national culture

The dynamism and purposefulness in the implementation of cultural and educational transformations bequeathed by the Peter's era determined the accelerated rates of development of Russian literature. The process of establishing the aesthetic doctrine of classicism on Russian soil, which took place during the 1730-1750s, was also marked by the intensity of searches. Russian authors, who were laying the foundations for a new secular literature, had to solve several problems simultaneously. Suffice it to point out that by the time A.D. Kantemir, following Boileau, wrote his first satires, and V.K.Trediakovsky, also imitating Boileau, wrote "A solemn ode on the surrender of the city of Gdansk" (1734), a system of Russian versification continued to preserve alien to the laws of its language, transferred back in the 17th century. from neighboring Poland, the norms of syllabic verse.

The system of syllabic versification, based on the requirement for quantitative coincidence of syllables in each verse, corresponds to the nature of languages \u200b\u200bwith a fixed stress, such as Polish or French. The constancy of stress ensures the rhythm of the verses due to the repetition in each of them of an equal number of syllables. The principled heterogeneity of syllables in the words of the Russian language made the syllabic principle alien to Russian poetry. The rhythm in Russian verse, as it was already recorded in folk songs, was provided not quantitatively, but due to repetitions of intonationally selected segments of words, that is, due to taking into account the repetition of stressed syllables. The creation of a new literature was impossible without a qualitative transformation of the outdated system of syllabic versification, which contradicted the properties of the Russian national language. All major Russian authors of that time understood this.

And we see how consistently Trediakovsky, Kantemir and Lomonosov address the problem of ordering Russian verse. All of them write theoretical treatises in which they offer specific solutions to the problem. It is indicative how the ideas of each of them demonstrate a different degree of dependence on the traditions from which they start, and a different understanding of the tasks that have been set by time for Russian literature. If Kantemir did not go further than improving the syllabic verse, then Trediakovsky was the first in his treatise to proclaim the principle of tonic versification as the most widespread in Russian folk songs and therefore natural for national poetry (A New and Short Way to Composing Russian Poems, 1735). But he stopped halfway, essentially limiting himself to toning the syllabic and introducing the concept of a foot as a metric indicator for Russian verse. A student of the Sorbonne, translator of P. Talman's gallant novel "Riding to the Island of Love", Trediakovsky in his poetic innovations proceeded from the functional comprehension of lyric poetry in its singing existence. Hence their preference for choreic size and rejection of iambic. The half-heartedness of Trediakovsky's reform was also reflected in the rejection of the principle of alternation of male and female rhymes in favor of the retained connection with the syllabic female rhyme.

The provisions of Trediakovsky's treatise were developed and supplemented in his own way by Lomonosov in his "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry" (1739). Lomonosov wrote his letter while studying in Germany. This circumstance played a certain positive role in his theoretical searches. The freedom inherent in the German language in the distribution of stress between syllables brought the versification possibilities of German verse closer to Russian. Acquaintance with the theoretical works of IK Gotshed, combined with a keen sense of the time-dictated needs of national literature, helped Lomonosov overcome the one-sidedness of the reform proposed by his predecessor.

Lomonosov emerged victorious in a dispute with Trediakovsky, for with his odes he practically proved the advantages of his position. The structure of the iambic verse, which Lomonosov approved in the ode genre, gravitating towards a narrative, oratorical element, provided the best opportunities for turning this genre, panegyric by its nature, into a tribune of public opinion. And this was the historical merit of Lomonosov.

In parallel with the reform of Russian versification, Lomonosov and his contemporaries had to solve another important task - to develop the foundations of a new Russian literary language. The old times have left the new era as a book language Church Slavonic. It was the language of "school drama", syllabic verses and sermons of F. Prokopovich. The influence of the norms of this language system is felt both in the satire of Cantemir and in the works of Trediakovsky. But already Trediakovsky himself, in his very first translation of P. Talman's love story in 1730, recognizes the need to bring the literary language closer to common colloquial speech. In his treatise on versification and a number of other works, Trediakovsky examines the formation of literary norms of the Russian language and its place among the languages \u200b\u200bof other peoples (for example, his "Speech on the purity of the Russian language", 1735, or "A conversation between a stranger and a Russian about the spelling of the old and new and about everything that belongs to this matter ”, 1748).

The most capital contribution in this area belonged to Lomonosov. His works on Russian eloquence (two versions of "Rhetoric") and "Russian Grammar" did not lose their significance throughout the entire 18th century. And his small in volume, but fundamentally important in content, "Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language" (1757) contained a coherent theory that streamlined the relationship of the style complexes of the Russian language of that time in various literary genres.

The fact that the issues of versification and the development of norms of the literary language occupied a dominant position during the formation of classicism in Russia is confirmed in specific forms literary criticism of those years. Critical articles by Trediakovsky or Sumarokov, almost always polemical, are full of reproaches and accusations, denouncing their opponents of ignorance of the laws of logic and grammar, in violation of the norms of natural use of words, in an inattentive attitude to the sound of poetry. Questions of theory and questions of poetic practice were so closely merged that sometimes the creative act itself turned into an occasion to prove the correctness of a particular concept. We find clear confirmation of this in the well-known competition of 1743, when three major poets - Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Sumarokov - performed poetic transcriptions of one Psalm 143, each demonstrating the possibilities of the system of versification he defended.

In a similar atmosphere, the formation of the artistic system of classicism on Russian soil took place. By the time Sumarokov speaks with his "epistols", many of the difficulties were already over. And, however, even for Sumarokov, the question of creating a poetic Russian language continues to remain relevant:

We need such a language as the Greeks had,

What the Romans had and, following them,

As Italy and Rome now say,

How beautiful French has become in the past century,

Or, finally, to say what a Russian is capable of! -

exclaims Sumarokov in Epistle 1, dedicated to the Russian language.

It is noteworthy that the content of this epistle does not match what is discussed in Boileau's poetic treatise. And this is no coincidence. Questions of the formation of the literary language were at the time of the heyday of French classicism in the 17th century. the passed stage. For Russian literature in the context of the formation of classicism, the relevance of this issue was especially obvious. In the first of Sumarokov's two epistles, a problem is put forward that was posed in French literature back in the 16th century. by the poet of the Pleiades du Bellay in the first part of his famous treatise "Defense and glorification of the French language" ("La defense et illustration de la langue française", 1549). Polemically directed against the blind enthusiasm for the then fashionable Italian elegant poetry cultivated at court and against the orthodox guardians of the Sorbonne's Latin education, Du Bellay's treatise was permeated with the patriotic idea of \u200b\u200bdefending the merits of the French common language. "... I do not consider our national language in its current state as low and despicable as the arrogant admirers of the Greek and Latin languages \u200b\u200bportray it, ... believing that good can only be said in a foreign language incomprehensible to the people," he declares in Chapter IV 1st book of his treatise. Du Bellay sees the way of enriching his native language in studying with ancient ancient authors. The ultimate goal of imitation of the ancients should be, according to Du Bellay, a noble desire to surpass them. And he is full of faith in the attainability of the goal.

The patriotic pathos that determined the mentality of the creators of the new Russian culture is easily explained by the atmosphere of social upsurge in the 1730s and 1750s.

The fundamental difference between the process of the formation of Russian classicism from French was that its creators had to deal with such problems that in France by the beginning of the 17th century, that is, by the time of the establishment of classicism there, were basically solved. For Boileau in his "Poetic Art" the countdown begins with the poetry of F. Malerba. A representative of the culture of the brilliant century of Louis XIV, who deliberately implanted the refined taste of the literary educated elite, Boileau is far from the democracy that was visible in the theoretical reasoning of his predecessors. For him, the patriotic pathos that permeates Du Bellay's arguments about the French literary language does not seem relevant either.

The theorist of Russian classicism Sumarokov, following Boileau in the regulation of certain genres, proceeds from fundamentally different premises in understanding the functions of literature. For Sumarokov and his contemporaries, the creation of new literature was always perceived as inextricably linked with the solution of specific practical problems, in line with the establishment of those new forms of social life that were established in Russia as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

More about the originality of Russian classicism:

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and the national self-determination of Russia starting from the era of Peter I. Europeanism of the ideology of Peter's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called "enlightenment classicism" - a combination of classicistic creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - flourished in the works of Voltaire in French literature and acquired an anticlerical, socially critical pathos: several decades before the Great French Revolution, the times of apology for absolutism were already a distant history. Russian classicism, due to its strong connection with secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, trying to educate its readers and instruct monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, it acquired the status of a leading trend in Russian literature towards at the time when Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was under attack in the second half of the 1720s - 1730s. Therefore, Russian classicism begins "not with the fruit of the spring - an ode, but with the fruit of the autumn - satire," and the socially critical pathos is characteristic of it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political principle is only the soil on which the psychological conflict of reasonable and unreasonable passion develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their decrees is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic conciliarity and the absolute power of society over the individual, the matter was completely otherwise. For the Russian mentality, which had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need for the humility of the individual in front of society, the personality in front of the authorities was not at all such a tragedy as it was for the Western worldview. The choice, which is relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the very situation of choice in Russian classicism lost its conflict-forming function, and another one came to replace it.

The central problem of Russian life in the 18th century. there was a problem of power and its succession: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power in a legal way. XVIII century. - this is an age of intrigues and palace coups, which too often led to the absolute and uncontrolled power of people who did not correspond not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classical literature immediately took a political and didactic direction and reflected this very problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the inconsistency of the ruler with the duties of the autocrat, the conflict of experiencing power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of \u200b\u200bpower exercised for the benefit of his subjects.

Thus, the Russian classicist conflict, while retaining the situation of a choice between rational and unreasonable passion as an external plot drawing, was fully realized as a socio-political in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion for the sake of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical encroachments. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of French classicistic tragedies were drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies on the plots of Russian chronicles and even on the plots of not so distant Russian history.

Finally, another specific feature of Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What any European literature had at its disposal at the time of the emergence of the theory of classicism - namely, a literary language with an ordered style system, the principles of versification, a defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory was ahead of literary practice. The normative acts of Russian classicism - the reform of versification, the reform of the style and the regulation of the genre system - were implemented between the mid-1730s and the end of the 1740s. - that is, mainly before a full-fledged literary process unfolded in Russia in the mainstream of classicist aesthetics.

22.12.2014 5210 740 Abdrakhmanova Asel Maratovna

a) make an overview of the era (cultural, economic,
political situation)
b) to acquaint students with the literary movement
"classicism", to mark its main features and
characteristics
Developing:
a) the assimilation by students of a complex of theoretical
concepts on this topic
Educational:
a) broaden the horizons of students
b) develop the aesthetic taste of students

Literature: 1. V.Ya.
Korovina
2. Yu.M. Lotman Russian Literature Textbook
3. Literary encyclopedic dictionary
1. Org. moment
Greeting students, checking missing.
In today's lesson, we will see what changes and transformations the 18th century brought with it, how these transformations were reflected in literature.
We will also get acquainted with the literary movement "classicism" (one of the main trends in Russian literature of the 18th century)
There was that vague time
When Russia is young
In struggles straining strength,
Courage with the genius of Peter.
Literature of the 18th century (like the literature of any other period) is inextricably linked with the era, with the cultural and socio-political life of the country.
Review of the cultural and political situation in Russia in the 18th century.
Russia of the 18th century (the initial period of the Petrine era) is going through a number of cardinal transformations in all areas of state, cultural and political life.
The independence of Russia is strengthening, its military power is growing, its influence on the European arena is increasing. Thanks to all the reforms, the autocratic power is also being strengthened. The 18th century is the century of enlightened absolutism with its ideas of citizenship, patriotism, and the unity of the nation.
Absolutism - autocracy
/ Moscow University opens, general education and vocational schools are created, a new calendar is introduced, the first Russian newspaper is founded, the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts, the first permanent Russian theater are established /
To move the country forward, eradicate patriarchal foundations, superstitions, it was necessary to pay attention to the development of the following areas: - education
- the science
- culture
- printing
Literature acquires special, exceptional importance in this regard.
Literature of the 18th century brings with it the image of a person who feels like a citizen and a patriot, who for the good of society and the state is ready to sacrifice personal well-being, ready to subordinate his feelings to a public duty.
The dominant direction in the literature of the 18th century was classicism.
Classicism - (from Latin classicus - exemplary), an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European literature of the 18th - early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to antique images as an ideal aesthetic standard.
/ The concept of beauty in the art of classicism is associated with symmetry and harmony. This was reflected in the rules of behavior of people in a secular society: the violent expression of feelings was considered indecent in the 18th century and was perceived as a sign of low birth or bad upbringing. The manifestation of even the most powerful passions should be like deep waters enclosed in granite shores. /
Features of classicism
1. Approval of the ideas of enlightened absolutism - patriotism, citizenship, the unity of the nation.
2. Affirmation of the priority of reason.
3. The aesthetics of classicism is based on the principle of rationalism: a work of art must be reasonably and consistently constructed, logically verified (from the principle of "imitation of nature").
4. Compliance with certain creative norms and rules (strict plot and compositional organization).
5. A clear division of heroes into positive and negative
6. "Immutability" of the hero (lack of internal development).
7. Idealization of the hero (odes of Lomonosov)
8. Interest in the folk language, the use of folk speech in works.
9. The objectivity of the story.
Features of classicism
1. Division of genres into "high" and "low".
High: (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is state life, historical events, mythology; their heroes are monarchs, military leaders)
Low: (comedy, satire, fable) depicts the private, daily life of middle-class people.
Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixture of the sublime and the base, tragic and comic, heroic and ordinary is allowed.
The leading genre of classicism was tragedy, addressing the most important social and moral problems of the century. Social conflicts appear in it as reflected in the souls of the heroes, who are faced with the need to choose between moral duty and personal passions.
2. The law of "three unities" (unity of time, place and action)
unity of time - the action takes place within one day
unity of place - the action takes place in one place
unity of action - one-plot line, a large number of heroes (related to the plot)
Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov.
Features of Russian classicism.
connection with modern reality
satirical focus
an appeal to specific phenomena of Russian life
predominance of national - historical themes
high level of development of the genre of ode
3. Lesson summary
In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and stylistic forms that had developed in the West, merged with the general European literary development, while maintaining its national identity.
3. Homework a) teach a lecture on classicism
b) preparation of messages on the activities of M.V.
Lomonosov (individual assignments)
Lesson topic: M.V. Lomonosov. Reformed
activities in the field of the Russian language and
literature.
Lesson objectives: Educational:
a) introduce students to the personality of one of
the greatest educators - M.V.
Lomonosov
b) to reveal the essence of M.V. Lomonosov
Developing:
a) master a set of theoretical concepts for
this topic
Educational:
a) instill in children a sense of national pride,
patriotism
Literature:
Literary encyclopedic dictionary (articles:
ode, Lomonosov)
Yu.M. Lotman Russian Literature Textbook for
middle classes
Textbook on Russian literature, ed.
V. Ya. Korovina
1. Org. moment
In today's lesson we will get acquainted with the personality of the outstanding figure of Russian education - M.V. Lomonosov, and also appreciate the significance of his reform activities.
2. "A word about Lomonosov" Combining extraordinary willpower with
the extraordinary power of the concept,
Lomonosov embraced all branches of education.
The thirst for science was the strongest passion
this soul full of passions. Historian,
rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist,
artist and poet, he experienced everything
and penetrated everything.
A.S. Pushkin
Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(1711-1765)
M.V. Lomonosov was born on November 8 (19), 1711 in the village of Denisovka (now the village of Lomonosovo) in the Arkhangelsk province in the family of a peasant-Pomor. I went with my father on ships for fish in the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean (hard work, endurance). He learned to read and write early and by the age of 14 he had read all the books that he could get: Magnitsky's Arithmetic, Smotritsky's Slavic Grammar and Simeon Polotsky's Rhyming Psalter.
In December 1730 he left (against the will of his father) with a fish train to Moscow.
In January 1731, Lomonosov, posing as a noble's son, entered the Moscow Spavyano-Greek-Latin Academy, where he received good training in ancient languages \u200b\u200band other humanities (he knew more than 30 languages). He knew Latin perfectly and was later recognized as one of the best Latinists in Europe.
At the beginning of 1736, as one of the best students, Lomonosov was sent to the University of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in the fall of the same year - to Germany, to the University of Marburg, where he studied natural sciences and humanities for 3 years. In 1739 he went to Freiburg, where he studied chemistry and mining at the Mining Academy. In 1741 Lomonosov returned to Russia. In 1745 he became a professor of chemistry (academician) at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. At this time, Lomonosov was engaged in astronomy, nautical affairs, local history, geography, meteorology, mathematics.
Let's listen to messages about Lomonosov's activities in the field of chemistry, physics, astronomy.
Student messages
/ Add. In 1748 M.V. Lomonosov created a chemical laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, in which he conducted scientific research, including developing the composition of glass, porcelain, smalt, which he used for his mosaics. He independently designed instruments for chemical research, optical instruments. /
In 1755, on the initiative of Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened
Lomonosov's reforms in the field of the Russian language and literature.
Advances in language
1. In 1755 the Russian grammar of Lomonosov was published. For the first time, sounds were separated from letters, and the physiological and acoustic properties of sounds were considered. The Grammar gives the first classification of the main dialects of the Russian language. The Russian and Church Slavonic languages \u200b\u200bare clearly distinguished, their main differences are determined at different levels of the organization of the sound system.
2. Lomonosov created the concept of "three calm" / reform in the field of language stylistics /
The essence of the reform
According to Lomonosov, every literary genre should be written in a certain “calm”.
"High calm" is characteristic of heroic poems, odes, "prosaic speeches about important matters."
"Average" - for poetic messages, elegies, satire, descriptive prose.
"Low" - for comedies, epigrams, fables.
Differences between "calm" in the field of vocabulary
"High calm" - Slavicisms + neutral words (commonly used in both Church Slavonic and Russian)
"Average calm" - common words + a number of Slavicisms
"Low calm" - neutral vocabulary + common words
In addition, the following were excluded:
1. obsolete Slavicisms, already incomprehensible to contemporaries of Lomonosov (ovogdy, ryasny)
2.Rough, swear words (hrych, drag around)
Examples of
Church Slavicisms: Daughter, Lord, I Cry, Opened
Commonly used for both Church Slavonic and Russian (neutral) words: hand, glory, God, now
Colloquial (not in Church Slavonic) I say, a stream that
Reform in the field of literature (in the field of versification)
Lomonosov strove to comprehend the secrets of language and the secrets of poetry. Back in 1736, he acquired a treatise by the theoretician of the Russian language V.K. Trediakovsky's "A new and short way to compose Russian poetry", which interested him extremely. Lomonosov's answer was "A letter on the rules of Russian poetry" (1739).
The main provisions of the "letter"
1. Lomonosov extended the syllabo-tonic principle to all Russian versification (syllabic-tonic - syllabic-stressed, previously there was a syllabic, based on the longitude of syllables)
2. Lomonosov brilliantly showed the expressive capabilities of iambic.
3. Skillfully applied a combination of male and female rhymes (Trediakovsky insisted on using only female rhymes)

Lesson summary: (1st)
Thus, Lomonosov gave scope to Russian verse, made it flexible, sonorous, expressive. He brought the literary language closer to the spoken language (\u003d accessibility).
Lomonosov's reforms in the areas of literary language and versification met the cultural needs of the nation. New literary genres were needed to express significant social content, and Lomonosov opened wide artistic horizons for poetry. At the same time, the scholar's philological activity also had a broader meaning: it reflected the spirit of transformation characteristic of the post-Petrine era, in which Lomonosov's scientific and poetic creativity developed.
Lesson topic: Ode genre in M.V. Lomonosov
Lesson objectives: Educational:
a) to acquaint students with the work of M.V.
Lomonosov
Developing:
a) determine the main ideas and themes of M.V.
Lomonosov
b) identify linguistic and stylistic features
creativity Lomonosov (based on odes)
Educational:
a) the development of a linguistic aesthetic ideal
pupils

1. Org. moment
In the previous lesson, we met with the personality of M.V. Lomonosov, his reform activities. In today's lesson we will turn to the work of Lomonosov (specifically to the odes)
2. Lecture with elements of conversation
Before defining the main themes of MV Lomonosov's work, we need to understand what he saw the purpose of the poet and poetry.
The poet, in Lomonosov's view, cannot limit himself to singing only the movements of the human heart, he should be excited and animated by events that are important for the entire state, the entire country.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe state, of serving it, lies at the basis of all M.V. Lomonosov. The theme of the power and greatness of Russia, the patriotic pathos of "the benefits of society" were combined in Lomonosov's poetry with the glorification of Peter 1 as an enlightened sovereign, while the genre that Lomonosov chose to glorify the wealth and power of Russia was a solemn ode.
Ode - / a genre of lyric poetry /, a solemn poem in honor of a person or event.
This genre originated in antiquity and at first was a song with a wide lyrical content. In Russian poetry, the ode was perceived as a genre of civic lyrics with the obligatory "high" content and "sublime" style. In his work, Lomonosov most often used two types of ode - spiritual and praiseworthy.
Let's try to draw up a small diagram. But first, let's think - what could be included in the content of these odes, what are they about? (spiritual ode? commendable ode?)
Oh yeah
Commendable Spiritual
Created for special occasions (philosophical)
court life. Topics: Worship Main Topics:
sciences, education, peace, monarchs as 1.imperfection
guardians of sciences and the world. Often society, loneliness
used biblical, historical person.
associations. The main tone is enthusiastic. 2.the greatness of nature
3. Analysis of odds
Consider Lomonosov's ode "Evening Meditation on the Majesty of God on the Occasion of the Great Northern Lights"
(Expressive reading of the ode by the teacher)
What kind of ode does this ode belong to? Prove.
(Philosophical ode, since it contains the author's reflections)
What is the author thinking about?
(About the greatness of nature, its incomprehensibility, unsolved, power and man - "grain of sand" in this unknown world)
But! Man seeks to penetrate the secrets of nature, that is, he is not a powerless contemplator, suppressed and wilted. Man is a reasonable, thinking creature. He admires the greatness of the Creator and his power, but does not abandon attempts to penetrate into the essence of phenomena.
Conversation.
Analysis of stanzas.
1st stanza - a majestic picture of nature is drawn (give examples)
See what a wonderful metaphorical image the author draws
An abyss opened, full of stars ...
What is the author talking about in this line?
(about the night sky)
Is a man drawn against the background of this gloomy solemn picture of nature? What does the author compare to a person?
(With a grain of sand, with a small spark, with a feather)
What extraordinary natural phenomenon does the author admire?
(northern lights)
To whom does the author turn to explain this natural phenomenon?
(to scientists, sages)
On the one hand, the author admires a natural phenomenon as a miracle, on the other, he tries to understand and explain it.
What artistic and expressive means does the author use in the ode and for what?
(The author uses many rhetorical questions, exclamations, special “high” vocabulary to create a special emotional mood, to create the importance and depth of the topic touched upon)
Now let's turn to the ode "On the day of Her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna's accession to the All-Russian throne in 1747"
(expressive reading by students)
The day of accession to the throne took center stage in the annual cycle of court holidays. 1747 marked the fifth anniversary of Elizabeth's accession to the throne.
Can this ode be considered classic in content and form? (we will put this question at the forefront)
Let's note the features of classicism.
Sphere - state life; heroes - monarchs (Elizabeth, Peter); heroes are idealized; "high" content, "sublime" language.
What is glorified in the ode? We can understand this from the first lines.
The joy of kings and kingdoms of the earth, beloved silence ...

"Silence" - that is, a peaceful state of the state as the best time for the development of arts and sciences. And Elizabeth is the keeper of this silence.
Elizabeth, Peter, Catherine - are portrayed idealized as monarchs-educators, patronizing sciences and education. Lomonosov draws the image of an ideal sovereign, shows what he should be, gives "a lesson to tsars."
Through the glorification of Elizabeth as the custodian of education and sciences, the sciences themselves are glorified. Who is the author addressing (and for what purpose) in the passage?
O you, who awaits ...
(The author appeals to the sons of Russia with an appeal to prove that they are no worse than foreign craftsmen, scientists and can serve the development and prosperity of their country)
4. Lesson summary
Having analyzed Lomonosov's odes, we see that they are imbued with high civic pathos and their main goal (like all Lomonosov's work) was to glorify the wealth, power and greatness of enlightened Russia.
5. Homework
Analyze in writing a passage from an ode (On the day of the ascension ...)
O you, who awaits ...

Lesson topic: A.N. Radishchev "Travel from St. Petersburg
to Moscow"
Lesson objectives: Educational:
a) to acquaint students with personality and creativity
A.N. Radishcheva
b) note the importance of social activities
the writer
Developing:
a) identify the main themes and ideas of creativity
A.N. Radishcheva
Educational:
a) instill in children a sense of compassion,
philanthropy

Literature: Yu.M. Lotman Russian Literature Textbook for
middle classes
Textbook on Russian literature, ed.
V. Ya. Korovina

1. Org. moment
In today's lesson we will get acquainted with the personality and work of A.N. Radishchev. A thoughtful writer, a keen observer, a sharp satirist, a man with a tragic fate, Radishchev left a deep mark on the history of Russian literature.
2. "A word about Radishchev"
Radishchev was born into the family of a wealthy landowner. He studied first at home, in the countryside, then in Moscow, at Moscow University. Then he was enrolled in the Corps of Pages (a close acquaintance with the empress, with high society, palace intrigues, sees the life of light "from the inside")
The writer's reading circle included the works of philosophers and educators - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. Radishchev traveled a lot abroad, where he studied law, natural science, chemistry, medicine, philosophy.
"Autocracy is the most contrary state to human nature" - this is the thought that Radishchev took from this journey. Returning to Russia, Radishchev entered the service. He tried everywhere and in everything to act according to his conscience and earned the respect of the best people of his era. At every step, Radishchev met with manifestations of autocracy, arbitrariness, despotism, with which his heart did not want to put up. The writer saw life without embellishment. Let's turn to his words:
I looked around me - my soul became wounded by the suffering of humanity. He turned my gaze into my interior - and saw that man's misfortunes come from man, and often only because he looks indirectly at the objects around him
Radishchev made a bold attempt to look directly at objects. In his home printing house, with an innocent title, the vigilance of the censor, he published the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow"
This work caused Catherine's rage. Radishchev was sentenced to death, but then the execution was commuted to imprisonment. Alexander 1 returned Radishchev to the court. The writer worked in the commission for drafting laws, proposed to introduce freedom of printing, freedom of trade. Radishchev also proposes to introduce a jury trial, abolish torture during interrogation, free serfs, and abolish corporal punishment. Naturally, this could not please the government. Unwilling to serve the state contrary to his principles, the writer commits suicide.
So, let's turn to the main book of Radishchev. "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" - was an expression of such a love of truth that it was one of the most notable phenomena in the history of Russian literature of the 18th century.
Radishchev describes his journey from the new capital of Russia to the old one. Calling the chapters by the names of the stations, he tells the various incidents and incidents that he observed in life or witnessed himself. He meets with by different people: peasants, nobles, merchants ... All of Russia with its troubles, poverty, filth stands before the author.
3. Analysis of the chapter "Copper"
What terrible and cynical phenomenon of Russian life underlies the events of the chapter "Mednoe"? (Examples!)
(sale of serfs)
How are the powers that be depicted (landowners, nobles)?
(cruel, cynical, out of human form)
What human values \u200b\u200bare violated in the chapter?
/ Human gratitude, faith (sacrament of wedding), moral duty, God's gift (child) /
We see people in positions of authority mock both human laws and God's laws. They lose their human form.
What feelings fill the author's soul after what he saw?
(pity, shame, compassion, rage)
4. Lesson summary:
Without rose-colored glasses, Radishchev looked at the Russian reality of his time and with exceptional boldness condemned the despotism reigning in Russia, the arbitrariness of the authorities, the lack of rights of subjects and the terrible situation of the peasants.
5. Homework
Analyze the chapter "Lyubani" according to the plan.
A) How is the peasantry portrayed in the chapter?
B) How does it relate to its position?
C) What is the author's attitude to the peasants?
D) What reflections does what he sees make the author think?