Information communication technology - These are technologies related to telecommunications, i.e. "Communication at a distance" through the Internet, aimed at integrating subjects into a single information space in order to obtain the maximum amount of information.
Information and communication technologies can be conditionally divided into two groups.
Figure: ICT groups.
The first group includes electronic textbooks and dictionaries; text, graphic editors, test programs, presentations, etc. This software (software) does not connect users, but assumes solely individual work.
The second group should include the actual communication technologies. They are based on the principle of information exchange, their purpose is the joint work of users, the organization of computer-mediated communication. This type of communication is carried out through the worldwide Internet through e-mail, teleconferences, forums, blogs and chats.
Communication technologies are based on information exchange. Information exchange is carried out through information transmission channels. Communication channels can use various physical principles. So, in direct communication between people, information is transmitted using sound waves, and when talking on the phone - using electrical signals. Computers can exchange information using communication channels of various physical nature: cable, fiber-optic, radio channels, etc.
The general scheme of information transmission includes a sender of information, an information transmission channel and a recipient of information.
If there is a two-way exchange of information, then the sender and recipient of the information can change roles.
The main characteristic of information transmission channels is their throughput (information transfer rate). The bandwidth of a channel is equal to the amount of information that can be transmitted through it per unit of time.
Typically, throughput is measured in bits per second (bps) and multiples of kbps, Mbps. However, sometimes the unit of measurement is byte per second (byte / s) and multiples of KB / s and MB / s.
The relationships between the units of the bandwidth of the information transmission channel are the same as between the units of measuring the amount of information:
1 byte / s \u003d 8 bit / s;
1 kbps \u003d 1024 bps;
1 Mbps \u003d 1024 Kbps;
1 Gbps \u003d 1024 Mbps;
The main components of communication technologies:
· Local computer networks;
· Global computer network Internet;
· TCP / IP data transfer protocol;
· Email;
· Teleconferences;
· Electronic board.
The main components of communication technologies:
1. Local computer networks
2. Global computer network Internet
3. TCP / IP data transmission protocol
4. Email
5. Teleconferences
Local computer networks
The creation of computer networks is caused by the practical need for sharing information by users working on computers remote from each other. Networks provide users with the ability not only to quickly exchange information, but also to share printers and other peripheral devices and even work with documents at the same time.
Local network - unites several computers and allows users to share the resources of computers, as well as peripheral devices connected to the network (printers, plotters, disks, modems, etc.).
In small local area networks, all computers are usually equal, i.e. the user independently decides what resources of his computer (disks, directories, files) to make public over the network. Such networks are called peer-to-peer.
If more than 10 computers are connected to the local network, the peer-to-peer network may not perform well. To increase productivity, as well as to ensure greater reliability when storing information on the network, some computers are specially allocated for storing files and software applications. These computers are called servers, and the LAN is called a server-based network.
Network hardware. Each computer connected to the local network must have a special card (network adapter).
The main function of the network adapter is to send and receive information from the network. At present, the most commonly used network adapters are of the EtherNet type, which can network computers of various hardware and software platforms (IBM compatible, Macintosh, Unix computers).
The connection of computers (network adapters) to each other is carried out using cables of various types (coaxial, twisted pair, fiber optic). To connect to a local network of partative computers, a wireless connection is often used, in which data transmission is carried out using electromagnetic waves.
The most important characteristic of local networks, which is determined by the type of network adapters and cables used, is the speed of information transfer over the network. The transfer rate of information over a local network is usually in the range from 10 to 100 Mbps.
Network topology. The general scheme for connecting computers in a local network is called a network topology.
The following topologies exist:
1) Local network type "Linear bus"
2) Local area network "Star"
3) Local network type "Ring"
Global computer network Internet
Local networks usually unite several dozen computers located in one building, but they do not allow sharing information with users located, for example, in different parts of the city. In this case, regional networks are created that unite computers within one region (city, country, continent). Many organizations interested in protecting information from unauthorized access (for example, military, banking, etc.) create their own, so-called corporate networks. A corporate network can unite thousands and tens of thousands of computers located in various countries and cities.
The needs for the formation of a single world information space have led to the creation of a global computer network Internet.
The Internet is a global computer network that unites many local, regional and corporate networks and includes hundreds of millions of computers.
Currently, over 150 million computers connected to the Internet store a huge amount of information. The global Internet attracts users with its information resources and services, which are used by about a billion people in all countries of the world.
Every local or corporate network usually has at least one computer that has a persistent connection to the Internet using a high-bandwidth communication line (Internet server). Fiber-optic lines with a bandwidth of up to 20 Gbit / s or more are usually used as such "trunk" communication lines.
The reliability of the global network is provided by a large number of communication lines between regional network segments. For example, the Russian regional segment of the Internet has several backbones connecting it to the North American, European and Japanese segments.
Data transmission protocol TCP / IP
IP address. In order for computers to find each other in the process of exchanging information, there is a unified addressing system on the Internet based on the use of an IP address.
Every computer connected to the Internet has its own unique 32-bit (binary) IP address.
The IP addressing system takes into account the structure of the Internet, that is, that the Internet is a network of networks and not a collection of individual computers. The IP address contains the network address and the address of a computer on that network.
To provide maximum flexibility in the process of allocating IP addresses, depending on the number of computers in the network, addresses are divided into 3 classes A, B, C. The first bits of the address are assigned to identify the class, and the rest are divided into the network address and the computer address.
For example, a class A network address has only 7 bits for the network address and 24 bits for the computer address, i.e. there can be only 128 networks of this class, but each network can contain 2 ^ 24 \u003d 16 777 216 computers.
In decimal notation, the IP address consists of 4 numbers separated by dots, each of which lies in the range from 0 to 255. It is enough to simply determine by the first number of the computer's IP address its belonging to a network of one class or another:
class A addresses - a number from 0 to 127;
class B addresses - a number from 128 to 191;
class C addresses - a number from 192 to 223;
For example, the IP address of the MTU-Intel server is written as 195.34.32.11. It belongs to the class C network, the address of which is 195, and the computer address on the network is 34.32.11.
ISPs often provide users with Internet access not with a constant, but with a dynamic IP address, which can change each time they connect to the network.
Domain name system. Computers can easily find each other by a numeric IP address, but it is not easy for humans to remember a numeric address, and for convenience, the Domain Name System (DNS) has been introduced. The domain name system maps the numeric IP address of a computer to a unique domain name.
Domain names and IP addresses are allocated by an international focal point for Domain Names and IP Addresses, with 5 representatives from each continent.
The domain name system has a hierarchical structure: top-level domains - second-level domains, etc. Top-level domains are of 2 types: geographic (two-letter - each country has a two-letter code) and administrative (three-letter).
Some top-level domain names:
Administrative | Organization type | Geographic | Country | |
a commercial | sa | Canada | ||
Educational | Germany | |||
US government | Japan | |||
International | Russia | |||
Computer network | England / Ireland | |||
TCP / IP protocol. The Internet, which is a network of networks and unites a huge number of different local, regional and corporate networks, functions and develops thanks to the use of a single TCP / IP data transfer protocol. The term TCP / IP includes the names of two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol - transport protocol;
Internet Protocol is a routing protocol.
Routing protocol. The IP protocol allows information to be transmitted between computers on a network. Information transmitted over the network is "packed in an envelope" on which the IP addresses of the recipient and sender computers are "written".
The content of a packet in computer language is called an IP packet and is a collection of bytes. On the way to the destination computer, IP packets pass through intermediate Internet servers where the routing operation is performed. As a result of routing, IP packets are sent from one Internet server to another, gradually approaching the recipient computer.
Internet Protocol (IP) provides routing of IP packets, that is, the delivery of information from the sending computer to the receiving computer.
Transport protocol. Now let's imagine that we need to send a multi-page manuscript by mail, but the mail does not accept parcels and parcels. The idea is simple: if a manuscript does not fit in a regular mail envelope, it must be taken apart into sheets and sent in several envelopes. In this case, the sheets of the manuscript must be numbered so that the recipient knows in what sequence to connect these sheets later.
On the Internet, a similar situation often occurs when computers exchange large files. If you send such a file in its entirety, then it can "clog" the communication channel for a long time, making it inaccessible for sending other messages.
To prevent this from happening, it is necessary to split a large file into small parts on the sending computer, number them and transport them in separate IP packets to the receiving computer. On the receiving computer, you need to assemble the source file from the individual parts in the correct sequence.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is a transport protocol, provides for splitting files into IP packets during transmission and assembling files during receipt.
Interestingly, for the IP protocol responsible for routing, these packets are completely unrelated to each other. Therefore, the last IP packet may well overtake the first IP packet along the way. It may happen that even the delivery routes of these packets turn out to be completely different. However, TCP will wait for the first IP packet and reassemble the source file in the correct sequence.
E-mail is the most widespread service on the Internet. is historically the first information service of computer networks and does not require the obligatory presence of high-speed and high-quality communication lines.
E-mail has gained wide popularity because it has several serious advantages over regular mail. The most important of these is the speed at which messages are sent. If a letter by regular mail can go to the addressee for days and weeks, then a letter sent by e-mail reduces the transmission time to several tens of seconds or, in the worst case, to several hours.
Another advantage is that an email can contain not only a text message, but also attachments (programs, graphics, sound, etc.). However, it is not recommended to send oversized files by mail as it slows down the network. To prevent this from happening, some mail servers impose restrictions on the size of messages forwarded.
Email allows you to:
Send a message to several subscribers at once;
Forward letters to other addresses;
Turn on autoresponder, all incoming letters will be automatically answered.
Create rules for performing certain actions with messages of the same type (for example, delete advertising messages - turn on an autoresponder, all incoming messages will be automatically answered with a reply coming from certain addresses), etc.
E-mail address. In order for an e-mail to reach the addressee, in addition to the message itself, it must contain the e-mail address of the recipient of the letter.
The first part of the mailing address is arbitrary and is set by the user himself when registering a mailbox. The second part is the domain name of the mail server on which the user has registered his mailbox.
The email address is written in a specific form and consists of 2 parts, separated by the @ symbol: [email protected]_name.
The e-mail address is written only in Latin letters and should not contain spaces. For example, the MTU-Intel mail server is named mtu-net.ru. Accordingly, the names of user mailboxes will look like: [email protected].
Functioning of e-mail. Any Internet user can register a mailbox on one of the Internet servers (usually the provider's mail server), which will accumulate transmitted and received emails.
To work with e-mail, special mail programs are required, and for any computer platform there are a large number of mail programs. E-mail programs are included in widely used communication packages: Outlook Express is included in Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Messenger is included in Netscape Communicator.
The mail program is used to create a mail message on the local computer. At this stage, in addition to writing the text of the message, you must specify the address of the recipient of the message, the subject of the message and attach files to the message, if necessary.
The process of sending a message begins by connecting to the Internet and delivering the message to your mailbox on a remote mail server. The mail server will immediately send this message through the Internet mail server system to the recipient's mail server in their mailbox.
To receive the letter, the addressee must connect to the Internet and deliver mail from his mailbox on a remote mail server to his local computer. Mail programs usually provide the user with numerous additional services for working with mail (selection of addresses from the address book, automatic mailing of messages to specified addresses, etc.).
Teleconferences
There are tens of thousands of conferences or newsgroups on the Internet, each devoted to a discussion of a problem. Each conference is allocated its own mailbox on the Internet servers that support the work of this teleconference.
Users can send their messages to any of these servers. The servers are periodically synchronized, that is, they exchange the contents of the teleconference mailboxes, so the conference materials are fully available to the user on any such server.
The principle of work in teleconferences is not much different from the principle of work with e-mail. The user can send his messages to any teleconference and read messages sent by other participants.
To work in teleconferences, they usually use the same mail programs as when working with e-mail, for example Outlook Express.
Information acts like a drug, which has become especially noticeable today, when a person spends more and more time on social networks. In fact, he no longer needs the world, that is, primary sensations, he more needs descriptions of these sensations made by others. Of course, he cannot physically visit all the described places, so he will always rely on other people's descriptions.
Elements of such a predominance of informational or virtual knowledge over knowledge of the physical order have existed for a long time. In the nineteenth century, when Russia was under the spell of French soft power, a person who had never been to France might still know Paris better than a Frenchman. We can love the distant more than the near, because we see it in a halo. In fact, soft power, while accentuating the positive, works the same way to create a halo.
Perestroika easily demolished the seemingly monumental Soviet barricades due to the "charm" of the West, which had long penetrated Soviet minds. Perestroika was formed by the new media, but was based on the images created by the old media, when Soviet televangelists who angrily denounced the West were simultaneously creating a different picture of the Western world.
How can you explain such a strong effect of communication technologies? To a large extent, we live within the framework of the same emotions and the same actions. Almost instantly we start buying the same phone models, read the same books, watch the same TV series. In fact, we are more alike than unlike each other.
Man as a social animal is tuned in to repeat someone else's behavior. As the theory of the spiral of silence by E. Noelle-Neumann shows, we are simply afraid of being in the minority. This is an ingrained legacy of the past, but in fact also of the present, as accusers always and everywhere speak on behalf of the majority. Nobody has the right to be different when we are. D. Bykov once wrote that everyone who wanted to change Russia is pushed either into emigration or into the grave. And he concludes this reasoning with the following phrase: "The motto of all true love and all genuine Russian patriotism was formulated by Chekhov:" Pop what they give. " And this is a characteristic of any state, since the expression of patriotism in it is always captured by a group of professional patriots who do not admit amateurs into their ranks.
The rise always pushes forward romantic notions of the future. But the fall that follows him no longer accepts these songs, he needs others. In both cases, the unit is the crowd, that is, a group of people who think and act in the same way. It is always more comfortable for a person to be in a crowd than to be alone. At all times, this is a safer behavior strategy.
The explanation for this can be found in the functioning of the so-called mirror neurons discovered in the nineties. The Italian neuropsychologist J. Rizzolatti discovered that monkeys in the brain repeat the actions they see in front of them. While doing the experiments, the psychologists went out to lunch, and when they returned with ice cream in their hands, they saw that the signals from the monkey, from which the electrodes were not removed from the head, went to the screen as if it was also eating ice cream. Any action that we see, we thus repeat in our head. Today psychologists explain by the work of these neurons not only empathy, but also the evolution of language. Autism is now associated with defectiveness in these neurons. Most importantly, they enable us to understand other people's intentions.
Communication technologies are not only a carrier of information such as a book, but the mental design of a message in the form of text or images. A novel is a communication technology distinct from newspaper news. History is also a communicative technology of telling about the past so that the present is its only correct product.
Once communicative technology describes the world from its own point of view, it each time creates a different model of the world at the output. This model of the world, acting on the brains of people, begins to shape the real world according to its description. In principle, a person sees what is included in the model of the world, and does not see what is not there.
Castoriadis says that a work of art gives form to chaos, thereby making the transition from chaos to space. We can also interpret the media according to its model of “windows into chaos”. All the time there is a translation of a multifactor phenomenon in the real world into a one-factor one in the information world. Therefore, there is a multiplicity of descriptions of the same event, all of which are true, but at the same time they may contradict each other. Truth 1 may not be the same as Truth 2, although they describe the same object.
The media is the most prevalent technology for shaping the mass consciousness. For each individual person, they are the most objective technology. However, this description is made on the basis of the community model of the world (for example, spy-spy or separatist-militia). The accepted and shared semantic matrix, in principle, does not allow us to understand how it looks in another matrix.
In addition, a person sees only the smallest fraction of what is happening at this moment, and already in the very situation of selection lies a significant distortion of objectivity, since it is about this, and not about that. This is evidenced by the well-known gatekeeper theory. Of the conditional billion events, the news agency will be interested in a hundred, and from it only ten events will be included in the news TV program. By taking one, we simultaneously destroy the other. However, both are true. Both the one and the other picture of the world will be true, but they will be different, sometimes even fundamentally different.
The media have found themselves at the center of peacebuilding because they are more ubiquitous than, say, romance, and have a very rapid update. A novel can be studied for decades at school or university without losing its value. Today's news item will no longer be as valuable tomorrow.
P. Lazarsfeld and R. Merton named three functions of mass communication: the assignment of status, the strengthening of social norms and drug dysfunction. They called it dysfunction because it results in a state of political apathy and inertia among citizens.
The work of this mechanism is described by them as follows: “The availability of information flows for an ordinary listener or reader often contributes to their lulling, drug addiction, rather than activity. An increasing part of the time is devoted to reading and listening, and, accordingly, a smaller part can be devoted to organized social action. The individual reads messages about problems and may even discuss alternative courses of action. However, all this is largely related to the intellectual field. Thus, there is not even a remote activation of organized social action. A citizen can be satisfied with his high level of interest and awareness and not notice his isolation from decisions and actions. In short, he views his secondary contacts with the world of political reality - reading, listening, thinking - as a substitute action. He makes the mistake of equating knowledge of the day's problems with acting on them. His social consciousness remains absolutely pure. He is in the know. He is informed. He has tons of ideas about what needs to be done. However, after he has had lunch, listened to his favorite radio program and read the second newspaper of the day, it's time to go to bed. "
It should be noted that the Internet has multiplied the described tendency of generating passivity of the population, when a person who has "noted" in the comments feels like a politician.
It is interesting that the color revolution, being also informational in its essence, acts in the opposite relation - it raises people to action, emphasizing that everyone has already joined the protests. We have before us a typical nudge methodology, when the support of the social norm becomes the toolkit.
This can be done by changing the forms of protest submission. As a rule, the dominant TV channels show protest with a negative connotation. Trash and empty bottles left after the protest rally will be shown there. In the event of a Communist Party rally, Ukrainian TV channels have always shown some old people with a portrait of Stalin in their hands, and even somewhere they could find an old woman with a goat.
Such a negative context completely negates protest. By changing the form of filing, demonstrating on the screen famous peopleincluded in the protest system, a person is pushed out of the position of an observer sitting at the screen to the position of a participant in the event. With a negative presentation of information, he does not want to unite with the protesters, with a positive one, this desire appears in him.
The famous anthropologist G. Bateson, who during the war worked in American intelligence, and after the war was a participant in the discussions that led to the creation of cybernetics, then there were not only mathematicians, but also representatives of the social sciences, emphasized in one of his articles that a person is interested in not so much a fact-event as the model of relationships that stands above it.
Bateson wrote: “Mammals in general (and humans among them) place great importance not on episodes, but on the patterns of their relationships. When you open the refrigerator door, and the cat comes up and starts making certain sounds, she is not talking about the liver or milk, although you may well know that she wants to. You can guess right and give it to her (as long as it's in the fridge). The cat actually says something about the relationship between her and you. If you translate her message into words, it would be something like: "Addiction, addiction, addiction." In fact, she is talking about a very abstract pattern within relationships. It is expected that from this statement about the pattern you will go from general to specific, to deduction of "milk" or "liver". "
We expect the same from the media. V. Zorin's story about decaying American imperialism could have any set of facts, the interpretation of which was already known in advance. And then his program was closed several times. V. Zorin himself spoke about one such closure: “There was a propaganda line that capitalism would die as a result of a nuclear war, but socialism would remain intact. From the very beginning it seemed to me rather dubious, and when our famous physician Evgeny Ivanovich Chazov and the American scientist, Nobel laureate Bernard Lown were in my studio, I asked them what they thought about the consequences of a nuclear war. Chazov answered aphoristically: "If a nuclear war happens, then the radioactive ash of socialism will be no different from the radioactive ash of capitalism." The next day, Mikhail Andreevich Suslov summoned me to his office, was very indignant, said that because of us he now does not know how to maintain morale in the ranks of the armed forces - and the program was closed. But Chazov, who was Leonid Ilyich's physician, chose the right moment, talked to Brezhnev, and he ordered the Ninth Studio to be returned to the air. "
It is interesting that D. Kiselev's statement about nuclear ash when he said that Russia is the only country that "is capable of turning the United States into radioactive ash" is a reiteration of Suslov's demand. At the same time, Kiselev forgot that in such a war, ashes arise from two sides, and not from one.
The media are creating a model of the world that makes it easier to manage. For this reason, quite often for the sake of the picture on the screen, events occur in real life, although we all believe that the inverse relationship is at work. The Soviet model was even more complex. As it was believed, “today in the newspaper, tomorrow - in the verse,” and this suggests that life could not appear in the verse, but only that life that is described, that is, constructed by the newspaper, that is, it was not life that was reflected, but the newspaper.
The life of a Soviet person was constructed. Hence the strongest role of propaganda of all kinds: from school to newspaper. All this was covered up with ideology, but in reality it all functioned more like a religion that prohibited any alien / alien behavior. It could only be about the harshness or mildness of punishment for such a deviation from the norm.
L. Gudkov talks about the Soviet phenomenon of the nationalization of everything and everyone. He sees the formation of Soviet man in the following framework: “Soviet man emerged around the end of the 1930s. Some part of this generation was destroyed during the war, during the terror, and he really began to come to the surface and become such a dominant mass type, of course, after the war, during the late USSR, during late socialism. "
He sees significant "shortcomings" of the object of influence of the Soviet person in the initial period: “The degree of indoctrination of the population in the thirties was significantly lower than in the fifties and sixties. Just imagine that in the thirties the average level of education in the country, by the end of the thirties, was three grades. People could hardly read the newspaper. The radio was just beginning to penetrate. And to understand all the complexities of communist ideology ... "
Decades of work - and the Soviet man was formed with the help of schools, universities, newspapers, films. This is not a Soviet man of the time of the collapse of the USSR, who was no longer essentially Soviet. The USSR collapsed both from above, as everyone is talking about, emphasizing the role of A. Yakovlev or M. Gorbachev, but also from below, since the “Soviet” had already become an anachronism, and ideology - a harmless ritual.
The canon of the Soviet person arose, but there was the possibility of various deviations from this canon. They could be fought with, as, for example, there was a period of struggle with dandies, the search for which went out to the people's vigilantes. But this was no longer fatal.
At the peak of the repressions, they did not pay attention to the absurdity of the accusations, since the result was important, the implementation of the plan to arrest the enemies of the people. Yuri Makarov, for example, spoke about a man who had found a Latin textbook and was jailed as a Latin spy. And the famous creator of Soviet radar, and then of cybernetics, A. Berg, also fell into these millstones, but was saved thanks to the intervention of Stalin. The following incident happened to him during the investigation: “During the interrogations, Axel Ivanovich was severely beaten ... Berg broke down. He asked for a sheet of paper, began to write a frank confession, in which he pleaded guilty to the fact that for a number of years he carried out espionage activities in favor of the Navy of the Swiss Confederation. The investigator immediately finished the interrogation, put down the interrogation end time and ran to the authorities. I didn’t realize that Switzerland doesn’t have a navy… ”.
Power has a variety of tools to keep the behavior of a citizen within the required limits. The authorities begin this work from childhood, loving and raising to a pedestal those who achieve the greatest success in this area, for example, A. Makarenko, who wrote in his "Pedagogical Poem" that it would be necessary to introduce the quality control department as in factories, when we deal with the formation of a person.
This was the purpose of creating a new person. But, as history shows, all countries are trying to unify a person. Philosophical advisor to the Conservative Party of Great Britain (it turns out that there are such positions as well) once remarked that both capitalism and communism atomized man to make it easier to govern him.
L. Gudkov describes the result of the creation of a Soviet person in the following form: A “correct” Soviet person cannot imagine anything that would be outside the state. For him, non-state medicine, education, science, literature, economics, production, etc. or simply impossible things, or - as it became already in post-Soviet times - illegitimate or defective institutions. He belongs entirely to the state, he is a state-dependent person, habitually focused on those forms of remuneration and social control that come only from the state, moreover, the state is not in the European sense (the state as an institution separate from society), but trying to be "total", i.e. .e. striving to cover all aspects of human existence, to play a paternalistic, guardian and educational role in relation to him. But at the same time he knows that the real state will surely deceive him, "nakolot", will not give something even from what he is "required by law", will try in every possible way to squeeze out of him everything that is possible, leaving him with a minimum amount of funds for survival. Therefore, he considers himself in full right to evade what the authorities demand of him (cheating, stealing, shedding from various duties). He is really concerned only with what is important for his well-being or for the well-being of his family, etc. " ...
In the pre-war period, strong propaganda ran into a weak recipient, which changed completely after the war. By the way, due to the emergence of a new recipient and new opportunities for television exposure, today it was possible to "restore", for example, Stalin. The chain of influence at the entrance and at the exit has become much more complicated. At the same time, the West celebrates the "restoration" of Hitler, whose return goes through mass culture.
The USSR was a society based on male values. The main thoughts of the mass consciousness were "if tomorrow is war", hence the cult of the army, mobilization economics and politics. Even athletic success is essentially male success.
Something similar can be seen in the description of Islam by G. Derlugyan, when he says: “The matrix of the partisan camp is clearly manifested in Islam. This is the religion of the great military campaign. Prayer, moreover, collective, five times a day - this helps to maintain discipline in the camp, from wake up to lights out. Ban on the use of wine. You cannot drink before prayer, and since prayer five times a day, it turns out that there is no alcohol. Prohibition of violence and robbery inside the camp. By the way, this probably explains the demand for modesty, the hijab for women. Women inside the military camp should not wear flashy, they should not cause jealousy and rivalry among soldiers. And outside the camp, the situation is completely different - there is Dar al-Islam (territory of Islam), and there is Dar al-Harb (territory of war). The war zone - there are completely different laws, there you can capture slaves, capture concubines, rob for three days, but inside - everything, sorry, pay taxes, sacrifice to the poor and quickly civilize, curb your belligerence. This is also a brilliant adaptation. How to direct the energy of aggression of homeless warriors, as they were called in the 19th century, outside and forbid it inside? " ...
Strong empires in the past demanded strong fences, both in order to shut themselves off from others, and in order to close the world to their own. All three spaces - physical, informational and virtual - were strictly guarded. After all, any clash in them could lead to conflict and war. After the fact, empires could depict any victories in the virtual space, although the reality was not so beautiful in any other country.
Former director of the British Museum N. McGregor reproaches British historians for being occupied only with its “sunny” pages: “In Britain we use our history to feel more comfortable, stronger, to remind ourselves that we are always, always to the very depth were lovely people. Perhaps we can remember a little about the slave trade here and there, some wars here and there, but what we stop at is a solar option. " He warns that this attitude to history is dangerous and deplorable. These words can be applied to the attitude to history throughout the post-Soviet space, especially since history here is still too “fresh” to be able to look at it from a distance. We can say that the history of the distant past has a better chance of becoming objective than the history of the recent present.
McGregor cites the attitude and treatment of history in Germany as an example, while he speaks of the art of forgetting: “I was surprised to see that adults in Germany do not talk about what happened in the war at all. Only Germans of my generation do this. It only started after the Eichmann trial, and then later after the Holocaust films, when they started thinking about the mechanics of it all. The idea of \u200b\u200bdiscovering exactly what your fathers and grandfathers did is a very disturbing experience. The idea that you can go and do this, especially in the post-Stasi world, is unprecedented. " He emphasizes that selective memory is formed in France and England, when everything is true, but there are no difficult parts.
In the post-Soviet territory, history is each time the foundation for a new building. Each time the foundation turns out to be of a different form, since everything that is not required to legitimize the new regime is removed from it. Then an unpredictable story begins to take revenge, creating conflict situations. And the school, as the main instrument of propaganda of modern states, is forced to rewrite its history textbooks all the time.
The thaw, from whose authorship N. Khrushchev “kicked out” with all his might, accusing B. Okudzhava in the very term as the son of a Trotskyist, although Khrushchev himself was, in truth, a surviving Trotskyist, is a temporary deviation from this model. But she managed to generate a certain number of other people with other interests before this type of permitted behavior was closed. Even V. Zorin, an ardent anti-Americanist on the screen, said the following words: “We are the sixties. Although young people for some reason believe that they should be treated without due respect, that they fell from Mars and started from scratch. But nothing starts with a clean slate neither in politics, nor in history. The sixties were in a more difficult position than the current reformers. They are wrong, but they are free. And the sixties began the struggle against the totalitarian system in the conditions of the existence of the system itself. "
On the other hand, during that period the system could not fail, but simply give an opportunity to manifest itself to those with whom it was then possible and necessary to fight. But maybe something went wrong.
The removal of Khrushchev can also be associated with the thaw, since the party nomenklatura very clearly senses such periods of "raising their heads" among the population. Fearing for herself, she made a sacrifice - Khrushchev. And everything returned to normal. Stern faces began to dominate our picture of the world again.
L. Gudkov recalled an important characteristic of that period, which I can also confirm, since it was my student and postgraduate time: “Approximately from the mid 60s, from 1963 to the mid 70s. It was a moment when the world was suddenly a little open, it was still impossible to go anywhere, but the opportunity to read Western literature opened up. And this ajar door created a space of intellectual freedom. And the process of accelerated assimilation of Western ideas, Western circle of topics, Western problems, which were perceived by us not as Western, but as universal, began. It was then, at the junction of a closed society and an open society, that many large people arose - Mamardashvili, Lotman, Pyatigorsky, Averintsev. It was, as Pyatigorsky wrote in one of his articles, a metaphysical moment. It is clear that no one was going to make a career. Everything was closed in this sense. But the possibilities to read, not to publish, but to read, were absolutely incredible. And the people rushed, not driven by anything. It was an absolutely free thirst for knowledge, never repeated again! " ...
The artificial “mirror” of the media then created the phenomenon of “socialism with a human face”. Let's accept the hypothesis that it was female type socialism, which essentially contradicted its nature.
In confirmation of the male / female model, one can cite the words of D. Bykov about one of the texts: “This is Sorokin's best text, although he has no less successful ones, let's say. And there are less. “Marina's Thirtieth Love” is a story all about the same. This is a story about how women's power, women's system of values, more flexible, at some point becomes dominant in Russia in the 70s. "
Then “male socialism” gets rid of both Khrushchev and the female model of “socialism with a human face”, which will later be revived in Czechoslovakia, but will be crushed by canonical socialism (without a human face).
All these “waves” (such as a thaw or perestroika) were purely informational, and there was no transformation of physical space behind them. At the same time, the information and virtual space has been transformed very strongly. In essence and in the driving forces of perestroika, virtual space is first of all included (for example, the film "Repentance" with its very complicated history).
S. Grigoryants, speaking of "Repentance", refers to the recollections of the chief editor of the Georgian State Film Agency, Sandro Tushmalishvili: serious changes are brewing: they are all very interconnected, coming from one institution of history.
We come to the film "Repentance". This film had a rather strange history. Filming begins in 1982. There was a very good writer Nodar Tsuleiskiri who had a novel called "Hyena." One fine moment Shevardnadze summons the leadership of the Georgian State Film Agency, but I come alone: \u200b\u200beveryone thinks that there will be retribution for a film about tea and evade under various pretexts. And he suddenly talks about plans - what are you going to do. And then suddenly, seemingly spontaneously:
Don't you think it's time to make a film about the tragic events of 1937? And not around the bush, as we love, but right in the forehead? " ...
That is, the film itself, from the point of view of S. Grigoryants, was by no means accidental, but was part of the Shelepin-Andropov operation, which included, among other things, the placement of KGB representatives, such as Shevardnadze, in various posts in the future state. By the way, hence the secret map that Gorbachev unfolded in front of M. Thatcher.
And here is the opinion of N. Leonov, a retired lieutenant general of the KGB, who was the author of so many of the mentioned KGB notes about Yakovlev and Shevardnadze (Leonov was at that time the head of the information and analytical department of the KGB of the USSR): “For me personally, at the direction of Kryuchkov , I had a chance to draw up a document on two persons: on Yakovlev and on Shevardnadze. These were precisely notes prepared by me personally and typed by me on a typewriter (then we did not have computers yet). It was printed in one copy and for one addressee - only for Gorbachev. It was 1991, February-March. Some 8-9 months remained before the death of the Soviet Union. These documents collected all the data on their anti-party, anti-state activities, and it was concluded that these people are actually opponents of our state. But instead of drawing any conclusions, Gorbachev took and showed both documents to Yakovlev and Shevardnadze. "Brilliant" move! And they, of course, soared with hatred of the KGB, because it was clear where the document was coming from. As for Shevardnadze, we had very serious suspicions that he was working against the state. Suffice it to say such things. He, without consulting with anyone: neither with the military, nor with the military-industrial complex, nor with the Central Committee, in negotiations with the Americans, gave his consent to explicit concessions on armaments. He never recorded his conversations with foreign leaders, primarily with US Secretary of State Baker. Shevardnadze never used the services of Soviet translators, but worked only with American translators. He never negotiated with the Americans at the Soviet embassy, \u200b\u200bbut always left with them to some ranch and they already sat there ... ”(see also about Yakovlev).
Because of these factors, the collapse of the Soviet system was not as unexpected as it is thought. It turns out that post-Soviet people lived in the USSR already in Soviet times. Perestroika has activated millions of them by exploiting information and virtual space (see also about Soviet and post-Soviet people).
FOR UNDERSTOOD / IE COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATIVE TECHNIQUE "
The basis of the social worker's activity is direct communication with the client when providing assistance and various kinds of social services. In the process of communication, clients' problems are solved, the image of the profession "social worker" is formed, and the social system as a whole. Therefore, considering the methods and technologies of social work, it is necessary to pay attention to the concept of "communication" and communication techniques.
Communication is a complex multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.
Thus, in the structure of the communication process, three sides are distinguished: communicative (exchange of information),
interactive (interaction) and perceptual (mutual understanding) .1
The identification of three sides of communication is possible only as a method of analysis: it is impossible to single out "pure" communication without perception and interaction. But if perception and communication in communication B to some extent lend themselves to separation from the whole, then it is almost impossible to isolate the interaction process separately.
Interaction or the interactive side of communication is the process of direct or indirect influence of the subjects of communication on each other, as well as the organization of their joint activities. The social worker's instruments of influence on the client are technologies and methods of social work. The social worker plays an active role in planning, structuring and coordinating various systems of social assistance to the population and, through his activities, has a certain impact on an individual or a group.
There are several theories that explain interpersonal interaction. The most famous of them are: exchange theory, symbolic interactionism, impression management theory, psychoanalytic theory. The main provisions of these theories are presented in table. 3.1.
Table 3.1 Theories of interpersonal interaction2
’Gamezo MV Domyshenko IA Atlas in Psychology: Inform.-method // Manual for the course“ Human Psychology ”. - M .: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1999.S. 104.
2 Fomin YL. Psychology business communication... - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - Minsk: Amalfeya, 2000.S. 15.
Social work technology 3.1
The interactive side of communication involves psychological impact. The purpose of this impact is the restructuring, change of individual or group mental phenomena (views, attitudes, motives, attitudes, states). The main ways of influencing partners on each other include: infection, suggestion, persuasion and imitation3.
In the process of interaction, it is of great importance how the communication partner is perceived. The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and is called the perceptual side of communication. The term "social perception" was first introduced by J. Bruner in 1947. Calling perception "social", he drew attention to the fact that, despite all the individual differences, there are common social and psychological mechanisms of perception, developed in communication, in living together.
The processes of interaction and mutual understanding of the social worker with the client are regulated by the main
3 Borozdina F.V. Psychology of business communication: Textbook. allowance. - M .: INFRA-M, 1999.S. 14.
principles of social work, the observance of which, on the one hand, is evidence of the professionalism of a social worker, and on the other hand, allows achieving it. So, for example, according to the principle of activation, social workers should not impose their knowledge and skills, but, on the contrary, use their professional competence as a tool that encourages people to independently exercise their strength and control their lives.
The communicative side of communication involves considering the information component. During the act of communication, not just the movement of information takes place, but the mutual transfer of encoded information between two individuals - the subjects of communication .. Therefore, communication can be schematically depicted as follows:
Slt; ^ S.
In the process of communication, people do not just exchange knowledge, they strive to develop a common meaning, and this is possible if the information is not only accepted, but also comprehended. Thus, the meaning of communication is not reduced to a simple process of transferring information, since in the conditions of human communication, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed4. Information exchange assumes that one party “offers” information and the other “accepts” it and communicates its information, both verbal and non-verbal.
The communication process can be represented by the following diagram (Fig. 3.1).
Communication as communication involves the activity of the parties involved in the communication process. This means that:
... by directing information, a person is guided in his partner, that is, analyzes his motives, goals, attitudes (social perception);
A. Andreeva G. M. Social psychology.-M.: AspectPress, 1999. P. 84.
Technology of social "work. PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
- partners can influence each other, i.e. exchange of information involves influencing the behavior of a partner (social interaction). This means that the exchange of information changes the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in the communication;
- communicative interaction is possible only if the person sending information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a similar system of codification and decodification of information. That is, “everyone should speak the same language”;
- in the context of human communication, communication barriers can arise. They are social or psychological 5.
The problem of communication is one of the permanent objects of the humanities and is considered by scientists from the point of view of different paradigms and views on the same communicative space. As a result, there are models that in one way or another structure the space where communication takes place. The most famous communication models represent
* Poreryakhin A.L. Psychology of management. The basics of interpersonal communication. -Kiev: VIRA-R, 1999.S. 203-219.
by the works of R. Jacobson, V, Propp, M. Bakhtin, Z. Freud, K.G. Jung, P. Bourdieu, M. Foucault, K. Levi-Strauss.
The information coming from the communicator can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining,
Incentive information is expressed in an order, advice, request, and is calculated to stimulate any action. Stimulation, in turn, can be of the following types:
- activation - motivation for action in a given direction;
- interdict - a motivation that does not allow certain actions, the prohibition of unwanted activities;
- destabilization - mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior and activity.
Additional types of communication are:
- expressive - the transfer of feelings, assessments, views;
- social ritual - maintaining customs, norms, procedures of behavior.
Communication between people always presupposes that they have certain goals that they strive to achieve in the process of communication. The purpose of communication answers the question:
"For what purpose does the subject enter into the act of communication?" Moreover, the goals of communication may not be fully realized. The communication process allows a person to realize various goals and satisfy social, cultural, creative, cognitive, aesthetic and many other needs.
The social worker is the subject of the state's social policy, therefore, when communicating with the client, he realizes not only the goal aimed at helping him, but also the goals of social policy. At the same time, he needs to remember that the client has his own goals, which he may not declare, but which will affect the communication process. Therefore, at the beginning of the interaction, it is important to understand the client's goals and, if necessary, adjust them. gt;
Communication is a holistic process that begins with the establishment of psychological contact between partners and ends with a break. In the act of communication, in which two people take part simultaneously, four stages can be distinguished:
Stage 1: SWITCH from communicating with yourself or another partner to communicating with this person. At this stage, the previous activity is interrupted, ends or pushed into the background, the partner becomes the most important component of the surrounding situation, and the study of the partner begins. The switching phase usually takes seconds, but incomplete passage of this phase significantly complicates the subsequent stage of communication.
Stage 2: ESTABLISHING A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTACT. The psychological contact largely determines what the first word will be, who will pronounce it, how it will sound and what effect it will have on the partner. At this stage, the study of the partner continues, the style of communication is chosen. In the course of establishing contact, each of the participants tries to determine the type of situation he needs, not only for himself, but also for the partner, from
the choice of the type of situation implies the actual roles of partners. Contact is most often established using non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication, but sometimes also with words. Psychological contact is considered established when both participants are confident that the partner is involved in the communication process (for example, when a person notices that some of the partner's micromovements are coordinated with his own).
Stage 3: VOICE EXCHANGE.
The main stage of communication is the exchange of verbal texts, during which partners achieve the goal for which they began communication. In terms of time, the exchange of verbal texts usually occupies the main part in the communication process, but it is not difficult to imagine a situation in which most of the time is spent on establishing contact. The most common communication mistake is focusing all attention on the third verbal stage and underestimating the importance of the rest.
On closer examination, the exchange of voice messages consists of the following procedures:
THE BIRTH OF AN IDEA. The exchange of information begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information, that is, the sender decides what meaningful idea or problem should be made the subject of exchange. Unfortunately, many communication attempts are cut short at this first stage because the sender does not spend enough time thinking about the idea. It is important to remember that the idea has not yet been transformed into words or taken another such form in which it will serve to exchange information. The sender has only decided which concept he wants to make the subject of information exchange.
ENCODING AND CHANNEL SELECTION. Before conveying an idea, the sender must use symbols to encode it, using words, intonation and gestures (body language) for this. This coding turns an idea into a message.
BROADCAST. It is about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistake for the communication process itself. While the transfer is only one of the most important stages that you need to go through in order to convey the idea to another person.
DECODING. After the sender sends the message, the receiver decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender's characters into the receiver's thoughts. If the characters chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning to the recipient, the latter will know exactly what the sender had in mind when his idea was formulated. The exchange of information should be considered effective if the recipient has demonstrated (verbally or non-verbally) an understanding of the idea by performing the actions that the sender expected from him, that is, “the considered procedures are implemented in the opposite direction.
These procedures are reflected in the model of the communicative process, which was proposed by the American journalist G. Lasswell. It includes five elements:
WHO? (transmits message) - Communicator
WHAT? (transmitted) - Message (text)
AS? (transmission in progress) - Channel
TO WHOM? (message directed) - Audience
WITH WHAT EFFECT? - Efficiency.
Thus, speaking about the problem of communication in general, the following three aspects can be distinguished:
- Technical problem: how accurately can communication symbols be conveyed?
- The semantic problem: How accurately do the characters conveyed express the desired meaning?
- Efficiency issue: How effectively does the perceived meaning influence people in the desired direction?
consequences. Preparation for a break occurs on two levels at the same time: on the verbal level (exhaustion of the topic of conversation or its interruption with a phrase, for example: "Sorry, I'm in a hurry!" .).
So, any communication process has a goal, even if it is not realized by the participants, and can be divided into a number of successive stages. The means of communication are understood as operations with the help of which each participant builds his communication actions and contributes to interaction with another person. To implement communication, the following are used: speech means of communication (verbal) and non-speech (non-verbal).
To transmit a message, any information must be appropriately encoded, that is, communication is possible only through the use of sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as such. Speech is the most universal means of communication, because when transmitting information through speech, the meaning of the message is least lost if the communication partners use the same sign system, that is, they speak the same language.
From the point of view of interaction, three positions of the communicator can be distinguished during the communicative process:
- open - the communicator openly declares himself to be a supporter of the stated point of view, assesses various facts in confirmation;
- detached - the communicator is emphatically neutral, compares conflicting points of view, not excluding an orientation towards one of them, but not openly declared;
- closed - the communicator is silent about his point of view, hides it.
These positions are manifested in the activities of a social worker as roles that, quite often, he must be able to demonstrate: participant, observer, consultant.
- The role of the participant assumes an open position. The social worker helps to carry out the most difficult of the planned activities or joins in the work if it is difficult.
- The role of the consultant involves a detached position. In this case, the social worker comes to the rescue as an advisor when the client has difficulties, but his direct participation is not required.
In verbal communication, the main technique is active listening, which allows you to better understand a person and win him over to yourself, which will be discussed below. A. Meyerabian's studies show that in the daily act of human communication, words make up 7%, sounds and intonations 38%, and other non-verbal interaction 53%. Thus, most of the information is transmitted through non-verbal means of communication, which are necessary in order to:
- create and maintain psychological contact, regulate the course of the communication process;
- to give new semantic shades to the verbal text, to direct the interpretation of words in the right direction;
- to express the emotions of evaluation, the accepted role, the meaning of the situation.
communication and problem solving. There are a lot of non-verbal signs of communication, some of them are committed intentionally, others almost intentionally, and still others unconsciously.
To systematize non-verbal means of communication, the following classification can be proposed.
- VISUAL
- kinesics: movement of arms, head, legs, torso, gait;
- facial expression, head position;
- poses: posture, head position;
- direction of gaze, eye contact;
- skin reactions: redness, blanching;
- proxemics: distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space;
- communication aids: signs of gender, age, race, clothing, hairstyle, cosmetics, jewelry, glasses.
- ACOUSTIC
- speech-related: intonation (volume, timbre, tempo, rhythm, pitch), pauses;
- not related to speech: laughing, crying, coughing, sighing, clapping.
- TACTICAL
- touching, shaking hands, hugging, kissing, contact with objects.
- OLFACTOR
- pleasant and unpleasant smells of the environment;
- natural and artificial human odors.
So, the communicative side of communication has its goals, stages and means of transmitting information, which speaks of its manufacturability, but it must be remembered that communication is more than technology. Reducing communication only to technology is to simplify it
and overlook the element of unpredictability that exists in any communication. Considering communication from the technological side, it is possible to single out certain techniques, the use of which makes communication more effective. And before presenting communication techniques that are applicable in the practice of social work, let us dwell on the communicative qualities and skills of a social worker.
