Biosphere structure border presentation. The boundaries of the biosphere

AND MAN

1. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere

2. The boundaries of the biosphere

3. Properties of living matter

4. Functions of living matter in the biosphere

5. The main laws of the existence of the biosphere

biosphere

The first ideas about the biosphere appeared in the works of the French naturalist of the XVIII century. J.-B. Lamarck

1875 (For him, the biosphere is the space

atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere where living organisms meet)

Basic principles of the doctrine of the biosphere published

IN. I. Vernadsky (1926)

The essence of the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky

The biosphere is one of the geological shells of the Earth, the development of which is determined by the joint activity of living organisms.

Living organisms not only adapt to inorganic nature, but they themselves are able to transform the environment, adapt it to their needs.

It is life that changes and transforms rocks, the aquatic environment and the atmosphere.("On earth

surface, there is no chemical force more permanently active, and therefore more powerful in its final effects, than living organisms taken as a whole.

The biosphere is the result of the activity of living matter,

and not just the space where living organisms live

2. BORDERS OF THE BIOSPHERE

Vernadsky singled out in the biosphere

neobiosphere, where living organisms currently live

paleobiosphere - the space where life has ever existed

Categories of substances in the biosphere:

Living matter - i.e. biomass of all living organisms on Earth. (If it is evenly distributed over the entire planet, you get a layer ≤ 3-4mm)

biogenic substance, arose from the waste of life processes (coal, oil, peat, limestone, sulfur, H 2 S, N 2 , O 2 , etc.)

Inert substance - i.e. all geological formations that are not part of organisms and not created by them (Many minerals, lava, volcanic ash, meteorites, inert gases)

Bio-inert substance, formed as a result of complex interactions of mixtures of living and inert substances (soil, silt)

3. PROPERTIES OF LIVING SUBSTANCE

1. Very high rate of chemical reactions through the use of biological catalysts (=enzymes)

2. High organic recycling rate and minerals

3. Persistence during life and rapid decomposition after death

4. The "omnipresence" of life is the ability to quickly occupy all free space

5. High adaptability to different conditions

6. active movement

production of nitrogen fertilizers from N2

goes at 5000 C and a pressure of 300-500 atm., and nodule bacteria fix N2 at norms. t and pressure

caterpillars eat food 100-200 times their weight per day

Biological cycle of substances

is determined by high biotic potential and the ability to grow and increase the surface of its body

springs with t up to +1400 С, waters of nuclear reactors are mastered, they tolerate freezing up to -2730 С

Swimming, crawling, running, flying

4. FUNCTIONS OF LIVING SUBSTANCE IN

BIOSPHERE

1. Energy - energy storage sun in the process of photosynthesis and its transfer through food chains.

(Organisms bind 10 times more energy than all modern humanity uses)

2. Gas - the ability to change and maintain a certain gas composition of the atmosphere(photosynthesis and respiration, nitrogen fixation and denitrification)

Changes in the composition of the atmosphere as a result of the activity of living matter

FUNCTIONS OF LIVING SUBSTANCE IN THE BIOSPHERE

(continuation)

3. concentration–

concentration organisms in your body scattered chemical elements and an increase in their content in comparison with the environment by several orders of magnitude.

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Slides captions:

Compiled by Komarova Maria Dmitrievna, biology teacher, MBOU "Mikhailovskaya RV (s) OSH"

Biosphere (from other Greek βιος - life and σφαῖρα - sphere, ball) - the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; "film of life"; global ecosystem of the Earth.

The boundaries of the biosphere The term "biosphere" (from the Greek. bios - life, sphaira - film) was proposed by the Australian scientist E. Suess (1831 - 1914), who understood the totality of living organisms of the Earth as the biosphere. The doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the Russian scientist, academician V.I. Vernadsky (1863 - 1945). VI Vernadsky extended the concept of the biosphere not only to living organisms, but also to the geological shells inhabited by them. In 1926, his book "Biosphere" was published, in which he showed that the activity of living organisms changes the geological shells of the Earth and creates the biosphere.

The biosphere is located at the intersection of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and occupies the entire hydrosphere. Upper limit (atmosphere): 15÷20 km. Lower boundary (lithosphere): 3.5÷7.5 km. Lower boundary (hydrosphere): 10÷11 km. Atmosphere (from the Greek ατμός - steam and σφαῖρα - sphere) - the gaseous shell of a celestial body, held around it by gravity. The lithosphere (from the Greek λίθος - stone and σφαίρα - sphere) is the solid shell of the Earth. The hydrosphere (from the Greek Yδωρ - water and σφαῖρα - ball) is the totality of all the water reserves of the Earth.

The boundaries of the biosphere Inanimate nature includes the upper part of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lower part of the atmosphere. These geological shells are connected by the circulation of substances and energy flows that occur in various biogeocenoses. Biogeocenosis is an elementary structural unit of the biosphere, and the biosphere itself is a global ecological system - the ecosphere.

Substances of the biosphere All substances of the biosphere are divided into four groups: living matter - the totality of living organisms of the Earth; inert matter - a substance of inanimate nature (sand, clay, granite, basalt); bioinert substance - the result of the interaction of living organisms with inanimate nature (water, soil, silt); biogenic matter - substances created as a result of the vital activity of organisms (sedimentary rocks, coal, oil).

The totality of living organisms that inhabit our planet. This is the main force that transforms the surface of the planet, the basis for the formation and existence of the biosphere itself. In all geological eras, living matter, transforming and accumulating solar energy, influenced the chemical composition of the earth's crust, was a powerful geochemical force shaping the face of the Earth. The amount of living matter in the biosphere (biomass) is a constant or little changing value over time. In all geological epochs on Earth, the amount of living matter was almost the same. The scientist emphasized that modern living matter is genetically related to the living matter of past geological epochs.

energy gas geochemical concentration destructive environment-forming transport historical self-reproducing

Substances of the biosphere, in the creation of which living organisms do not participate. These are, for example, gases, solid particles and water vapor emitted by volcanoes, geysers.

Formed by living matter of modern and past geological eras (fossil remains of organisms, oil, coal, atmospheric gases, lake silt - sapropel, sedimentary rocks, for example, limestone);

It was created simultaneously by living organisms and inert matter (for example, soil, water from inhabited reservoirs, clay minerals).

Working with the text of the textbook Task: complete the sentences The energy function manifests itself in .... The gas function of living matter is .... The concentration function of living matter is manifested in .... The redox function of living matter is characterized by ....

Modern man was formed about 30 thousand years ago. Since that time, a new factor, the anthropogenic factor, began to operate in the evolution of the biosphere. The first culture created by man is the Paleolithic. The economic basis of the life of human society was the hunting of large animals. Intensive extermination of large herbivores led to a rapid reduction in their numbers and the extinction of many species. In the next era (Neolithic) - the process of food production is becoming increasingly important. The first attempts were made to domesticate animals and breed plants. Fire is widely used. Population growth, a leap in the development of science and technology over the past two centuries, has led to the fact that human activity has become a planetary factor. Over time, the biosphere becomes more and more unstable.

Now man is using an increasing part of the planet's territory and increasing amounts of mineral resources. Mankind intensively consumes living and mineral natural resources. This use of the environment has its negative consequences. In accordance with the population density, the degree of human impact on the environment also changes. With the current level of human development, the activities of society have a very strong impact on the biosphere.

Air pollution. Polluted air is harmful to health. Harmful gases, combined with atmospheric moisture, fall out in the form of acid rain, degrade soil quality and reduce crop yields. The main causes of air pollution are the combustion of fossil fuels and metallurgical production. Fresh water pollution. The use of water resources is rapidly increasing. The constant increase in water consumption on the planet leads to the danger of "water hunger", which necessitates the development of measures for the rational use of water resources. Pollution of the oceans. With river runoff, as well as from maritime transport, pathogenic wastes, oil products, salts of heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, including pesticides, enter the seas. Radioactive contamination of the biosphere. The problem of radioactive contamination arose in 1945 after the explosion of atomic bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Nuclear weapons tests carried out before 1963 in the atmosphere caused global radioactive contamination. During the explosion of atomic bombs, very strong ionizing radiation occurs, radioactive particles are scattered over long distances, infecting the soil, water bodies, and living organisms. Also, during a nuclear explosion, a huge amount of fine dust is formed, which is kept in the atmosphere and absorbs a significant part of solar radiation. Calculations by scientists around the world show that even with limited use of nuclear weapons, the resulting dust will retain most of the solar radiation. There will be a long cold snap (“nuclear winter”), which will inevitably lead to the death of all life.

Nowadays, the problem of rational use of natural resources, nature protection has become of great importance. The Company takes the necessary measures to protect and rationally use the land and its subsoil, water resources, flora and fauna, to keep the air and water clean, to ensure the reproduction of natural resources and improve the human environment. For harmful substances in the atmosphere, maximum permissible concentrations are legally established that do not cause tangible consequences for humans. In order to prevent air pollution, measures have been developed to ensure the correct combustion of fuel, the installation of treatment facilities at industrial enterprises. In addition to the construction of sewage treatment plants, a search is underway for a technology in which the generation of waste would be minimized. The same goal is served by improving the design of cars, switching to other types of fuel, the combustion of which produces less harmful substances. Domestic and industrial wastewater is subjected to mechanical, physical, chemical and biological treatment. Wastewater treatment does not solve all problems. Therefore, more and more enterprises are switching to a new technology - a closed cycle, in which purified water is again supplied to production. New technological processes make it possible to reduce water consumption by dozens of times. Preservation of flora and fauna contributes to the organization of reserves and reserves. In addition to protecting rare and endangered species, they serve as a basis for the domestication of wild animals with valuable economic properties. Reserves also serve as centers for the resettlement of animals that have disappeared in the area, or for the purposes of enriching the local fauna. In Russia, the North American muskrat has taken root well, giving valuable fur. In the harsh conditions of the Arctic, the musk ox, imported from Canada and Alaska, successfully breeds. The number of beavers, which almost disappeared in our country at the beginning of the century, has been restored.

Vernadsky considered an important stage in the irreversible evolution of the biosphere to be its transition to the stage of the noosphere. The noosphere is the sphere of interaction between society and nature, within which reasonable human activity becomes the determining factor in development. According to Vernadsky, “in the biosphere there exists a great geological, perhaps cosmic force, the planetary action of which is usually not taken into account in ideas about the cosmos. This force is the mind of man, his striving and organized will as a social being. The main prerequisites for the emergence of the noosphere: the spread of Homo sapiens over the entire surface of the planet and its victory in competition with other biological species; development of planetary communication systems, creation of a unified information system; discovery of such new sources of energy as nuclear. the increasing involvement of people in science, which also makes humanity a geological force.

Repetition 1. The term "biosphere" was proposed by .... 2. The doctrine of the biosphere developed .... 3.Vernadsky divided the substances of the biosphere into 4 groups - .... 4. Bioosseous substance is 5. Functions of living matter…. 6Why V.I. Vernadsky called the modern biosphere - the noosphere?

E. Suess 2. Vernadsky V.I. 3. Living, bone, bio-bone, biogenic 4. is a substance formed as a result of the joint activity of organisms and abiogenic processes 5. Energy, gas, geochemical, concentration, destructive, environment-forming, transport, historical, self-reproducing. 6. Because the biosphere has entered a new stage of its development, which involves a reasonable regulation of the relationship between man and nature. Answers for self-examination.

When compiling the presentation, the following were used: Internet resources http:/www myshared.ru/slide/150420/ http:/www myshared.ru/slide/317240/ http:/www myshared.ru/slide/264106/ 2 .T.L. Bogdanova Biology. Tasks and exercises. M.: Higher school

The first scientists who seriously studied the biosphere were Jean Lamarck and Eduard Suess. Vladimir Vernadsky was the first to propose a holistic, unified doctrine of the biosphere.

Within the lithosphere: the upper part of the earth's crust, in depth - 3-7 meters. Hydrosphere: the lower boundary is the bottom of the deepest depression, 10-12 km. Atmosphere: up to the height of the ozone layer, there is no life above.

The basis of the structure is all living organisms that process various substances and form a biogenic mass. Inert and bio-inert matter - are formed with the participation of living organisms and without it. The composition of the "living shell" includes products of cosmic origin, radioactive decay.

The source of change is solar energy. Substance in the biosphere is in a solid, liquid, gaseous state. Characterized by a constant circulation of matter.

Biomass is a collection of organisms that belong to the same species. Calculated per unit area, volume. Distinguish biomass of animals, fungi, plants. Different natural zones are differently filled with biomass. For a certain period, biomass forms biological products.

Patterns of biomass distribution: plants are mainly located on land; there are more animals in the ocean than on land; There are more plants on land than animals.

Groups of organisms by importance in the processing of organics: producers - using chemical or solar energy, synthesize organics from inorganics; consumer - transform organic matter, feeding on it; reducer - turn dead organic matter into minerals.

The megabiosphere is a space of mutual influence of animate and inanimate nature.

The artebiosphere is a layer of human expansion. Together with the megabiosphere, it forms the panbiosphere.

Hydrobiosphere - all the waters in the world, except for underground, where there is life. Here, in the Archean era, life originated. There are 2 layers - bright photosphere, twilight dysphotosphere, dark aphotosphere.

The aerobiosphere is the air space inhabited by living organisms. Located in the troposphere.

Geobiosphere - life within the earth: phytosphere, pedosphere, lithobiosphere, hypoterrabiosphere, tellurobiosphere.

The first organisms were protozoa, unicellular. The end of the Archean era is the appearance of multicellular organisms.

Man masters space - this space is beginning to be called the "artificial biosphere". There are plans to explore Mars and the Moon.

The basis of Vernadsky's teachings: living organisms have a planetary influence. Objects that have already been under the influence of man form the noosphere, the "sphere of the mind." The development of science should turn the planet into the realm of reason. Human influence must become a decisive, creative factor.

Biosphere. The biosphere (from the Greek βιος life and σφα ρα sphere) is the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; "film of life"; global ecosystem of the Earth. The term "biosphere" was introduced into biology by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at the beginning of the 19th century. About 60 years ago, the outstanding Russian scientist Academician V.I. Vernadsky developed the doctrine of the biosphere. He extended the concept of the biosphere not only to organisms, but also to the environment. He revealed the geological role of living organisms and showed that their activity is the most important factor in the transformation of the mineral shells of the planet. He wrote: "On the earth's surface there is no chemical force more constantly acting, and therefore more powerful in its final consequences, than living organisms taken as a whole."

The boundaries of the biosphere. The biosphere is located at the intersection of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and occupies the entire hydrosphere. Upper limit (atmosphere): 15÷20 km. Lower boundary (lithosphere): 3.5÷7.5 km. Lower boundary (hydrosphere): 10÷11 km. Atmosphere (from the Greek ατμός steam and σφα ρα sphere) is the gaseous shell of a celestial body held around it by gravity. The lithosphere (from the Greek λίθος stone and σφαίρα sphere) is the solid shell of the Earth. The hydrosphere (from the Greek Yδωρ water and σφα ρα ball) is the totality of all the water reserves of the Earth.

The composition of the biosphere: Living matter formed by the totality of living organisms that inhabit the Earth. It is one of "the most powerful geochemical forces on our planet". Living matter is distributed within the biosphere very unevenly. Biogenic substance is a substance created in the process of vital activity of organisms (atmospheric gases, coal, limestone, etc.) Inert substance is a substance in the formation of which life does not participate; solid, liquid and gaseous. Bioinert substance, which is a joint result of the vital activity of organisms and abiogenic processes. Such are soil, silt, weathering crust, etc. A substance in radioactive decay A substance of cosmic origin.

Past and future of the biosphere. Modern man was formed about 30 thousand years ago. Since that time, a new factor, the anthropogenic factor, began to operate in the evolution of the biosphere. The first culture created by man is the Paleolithic. The economic basis of the life of human society was the hunting of large animals. The intensive extermination of large herbivores has led to a rapid reduction in their numbers and the extinction of many species. In the next era (Neolithic) - the process of food production is becoming increasingly important. The first attempts were made to domesticate animals and breed plants. Fire is widely used. Population growth, a leap in the development of science and technology over the past two centuries, has led to the fact that human activity has become a planetary factor. Over time, the biosphere becomes more and more unstable.

Man and the biosphere. Now man is using an increasing part of the planet's territory and increasing amounts of mineral resources. Mankind intensively consumes living and mineral natural resources. This use of the environment has its negative consequences. In accordance with the population density, the degree of human impact on the environment also changes. With the current level of human development, the activities of society have a very strong impact on the biosphere.

consequences of human activity. Air pollution. Polluted air is harmful to health. Harmful gases, combined with atmospheric moisture, fall out in the form of acid rain, degrade soil quality and reduce crop yields. The main causes of air pollution are the combustion of fossil fuels and metallurgical production. Fresh water pollution. The use of water resources is rapidly increasing. The constant increase in water consumption on the planet leads to the danger of "water hunger", which necessitates the development of measures for the rational use of water resources. Pollution of the oceans. With river runoff, as well as from maritime transport, pathogenic wastes, oil products, salts of heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, including pesticides, enter the seas. Radioactive contamination of the biosphere. The problem of radioactive contamination arose in 1945 after the explosion of atomic bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Nuclear weapons tests carried out before 1963 in the atmosphere caused global radioactive contamination. During the explosion of atomic bombs, very strong ionizing radiation occurs, radioactive particles are scattered over long distances, infecting the soil, water bodies, and living organisms. Also, during a nuclear explosion, a huge amount of fine dust is formed, which is kept in the atmosphere and absorbs a significant part of solar radiation. Calculations by scientists around the world show that even with limited use of nuclear weapons, the resulting dust will retain most of the solar radiation. There will be a long cold snap ("nuclear winter"), which will inevitably lead to the death of all life.

Protection of Nature. Nowadays, the problem of rational use of natural resources, nature protection has become of great importance. The Company takes the necessary measures to protect and rationally use the land and its subsoil, water resources, flora and fauna, to keep the air and water clean, to ensure the reproduction of natural resources and improve the human environment. For harmful substances in the atmosphere, maximum permissible concentrations are legally established that do not cause tangible consequences for humans. In order to prevent air pollution, measures have been developed to ensure the correct combustion of fuel, the installation of treatment facilities at industrial enterprises. In addition to the construction of sewage treatment plants, a search is underway for a technology in which the generation of waste would be minimized. The same goal is served by improving the design of cars, switching to other types of fuel, the combustion of which produces less harmful substances. Domestic and industrial wastewater is subjected to mechanical, physico-chemical and biological treatment. Wastewater treatment does not solve all problems. Therefore, more and more enterprises are switching to a new technology - a closed cycle, in which purified water is again supplied to production. New technological processes make it possible to reduce water consumption by dozens of times. Preservation of flora and fauna contributes to the organization of reserves and reserves. In addition to protecting rare and endangered species, they serve as a basis for the domestication of wild animals with valuable economic properties. Reserves also serve as centers for the resettlement of animals that have disappeared in the area, or for the purposes of enriching the local fauna. In Russia, the North American muskrat has taken root well, giving valuable fur. In the harsh conditions of the Arctic, the musk ox, imported from Canada and Alaska, successfully breeds. The number of beavers, which almost disappeared in our country at the beginning of the century, has been restored.

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky () an outstanding Russian and Soviet scientist of the 20th century, naturalist, thinker and public figure; founder of many scientific schools. Vladimir Vernadsky was a second cousin of the famous Russian writer Vladimir Korolenko. Vernadsky's activities had a huge impact on the development of the Earth sciences. As chairman of the Commission for the Study of the Natural Production Forces of Russia, he was one of the creators of the GOELRO plan (State Commission for the Electrification of Russia). In 1927, he organized the Department of Living Matter at the USSR Academy of Sciences. However, he used the term "living matter" as the totality of living organisms of the biosphere. He founded the new science of biogeochemistry. Of the philosophical achievements of Vernadsky, the most famous was the doctrine of the noosphere.

The doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere. In the structure of the biosphere, Vernadsky singled out seven types of matter: biogenic inert bioinert matter in the stage of radioactive decay; scattered atoms; matter of cosmic origin. Vernadsky considered an important stage in the irreversible evolution of the biosphere to be its transition to the stage of the noosphere. The noosphere is the sphere of interaction between society and nature, within which reasonable human activity becomes the determining factor in development. According to Vernadsky, “in the biosphere there exists a great geological, perhaps cosmic force, the planetary action of which is usually not taken into account in ideas about the cosmos. This force is the mind of man, his striving and organized will as a social being. The main prerequisites for the emergence of the noosphere: the spread of Homo sapiens over the entire surface of the planet and its victory in competition with other biological species; development of planetary communication systems, creation of a unified information system; discovery of such new sources of energy as nuclear. the increasing involvement of people in science, which also makes humanity a geological force.

CONCLUSION. Careful attitude to the biosphere not only preserves it, but also gives a significant economic effect. HOWEVER, humanity in its quest to improve the conditions of existence is constantly changing nature, without thinking about the consequences. For example, modern man has increased the volume of pollutants familiar to nature so much that it does not have time to process them. Some contaminants cannot be recycled. Therefore, the "refusal" of the biosphere to process the fruits of human activity will inevitably act as an ever-growing ultimatum factor in relation to man. The future of man as a biological species is predictable: an ecological crisis and a decline in numbers.

slide 2

The concept of the biosphere

The biosphere is the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere began to form no later than 3.8 billion years ago, when the first organisms began to emerge on our planet. It penetrates the entire hydrosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere, that is, it inhabits the ecosphere. The biosphere is the totality of all living organisms. It is home to over 3,000,000 species of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. Man is also a part of the biosphere, his activity surpasses many natural processes and, as V. I. Vernadsky said: "Man becomes a powerful geological force."

slide 3

The boundaries of the biosphere

Upper boundary in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone layer, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms. Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of the transition of water into steam and the temperature of denaturation of proteins, however, in general, the spread of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters. The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.

slide 4

The concept of the atmosphere

Atmosphere (from the Greek ατμός - "steam" and σφαῖρα - "sphere") - the gaseous shell of a celestial body, held around it by gravity. Since there is no sharp boundary between the atmosphere and interplanetary space, it is usually customary to consider the atmosphere around a celestial body in which the gaseous medium rotates with it as a whole.

slide 5

Earth's atmospheric gases scatter blue wavelengths better than others, so when viewed from space, there is a blue halo around our planet, and when viewed from Earth, you can see a blue sky.

slide 6

Slide 7

The concept of the hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth. Due to the wide mobility of water, they penetrate everywhere into various natural formations. They are in the form of vapors and clouds in the earth's atmosphere, form oceans and seas, exist in a frozen state in the highlands of the continents, and cover the polar regions of the land in the form of powerful ice shells. Atmospheric precipitation penetrates into the strata of sedimentary rocks, forming groundwater.

Slide 8

The water cycle in the hydrosphere

Slide 9

Slide 10

The average chemical composition of sea water, which prevails in the hydrosphere, is presented in Table. 3. At present, we can assume that all the chemical elements of the periodic table are present in sea water. However, the predominant part of the dissolved substances is composed of a few chemical elements: O, H, Na, Mg, Ca, Cl, S.

slide 11

The concept of the lithosphere

The lithosphere is the upper solid shell of the Earth, which has great strength and passes into the underlying asthenosphere, the strength of which is relatively low. It includes the earth's crust and upper mantle to depths of approximately 200 km. There are two main types of the earth's crust - continental and oceanic. Between them is an intermediate type, which is called subcontinental.

slide 12

slide 13

From the data in Table. 4 shows that the general chemical composition of the earth's crust is determined by a few elements: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, which make up its bulk. At the same time, the most common element is oxygen, which makes up almost half of the mass of the earth's crust (> 47.3%) and 92% of its volume. It is strongly associated chemically with other elements in the main rock-forming minerals.

Slide 14

The earth's crust is composed of rocks of various types and origins. Of these, sedimentary rocks account for 9.2%, metamorphic - 20% and igneous - 70.8%. The surface of the continents is 80% occupied by sedimentary rocks, and the ocean floor - almost entirely by fresh sediments.

slide 15

Composition and properties of the biosphere