As a result of the evolutionary process, the diversity of life forms arose that is observed in the study of modern and fossil species of animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms. Their classification, i.e. grouping by similarity and kinship, is dealt with by the branch of biology called systematics.
The study of the diversity of the animal world and the description of new species not yet known to science are still far from complete. Findings of new species are possible even among such large animals as mammals. For example, in the fauna of the USSR, a new species unknown to science is described at 3-4 years of age. Let's say that in the mid-50s of the XX century. Leningrad zoologist A.V. Ivanov discovered a new type of animal - pogonophora (Fig. 35). In terms of scale, this discovery can be comparable to the discovery of a new planet in the solar system.
The huge diversity of living organisms poses special challenges for taxonomy, the branch of biology that deals with the classification of species of living beings. The founder of taxonomy, as is known, was C. Linnaeus. In the first edition of his main work - “The System of Nature” - there were only 13 pages, and in the last, twelfth - 2335. If we tried today
Rice. 35, Pogonophora
describe all the known species of plants, animals, gryos, microorganisms, devoting 10 lines to each species, then the descriptions would take 10,000 books such as “The System of Nature.”
Artificial and natural systems If it is necessary to establish order in a book depository, then they proceed from a variety of principles. You can classify books, for example, by cover color or format. Such a classification of books is artificial, since it does not reflect the main thing - the thematic content of the books.
K. Linnaeus' system was artificial. He based the classification not on the true relationship of organisms, but on their similarity in some of the most easily distinguishable characteristics. Having united plants according to the number of stamens and the nature of pollination, C. Linnaeus in a number of cases created completely artificial groups. Thus, he combined carrots, flax, quinoa, bells, currants and viburnum into the class of plants with five stamens. Due to differences in the number of stamens, close relatives such as lingonberries and blueberries fell into different classes. But in another class (monoecious plants) there were sedge, birch, oak, duckweed, nettle and spruce. However, despite these obvious miscalculations, the artificial system of C. Linnaeus played a huge role in the history of biology, as it helped to navigate the huge variety of living beings.
When K-Linnaeus and his followers grouped closely related species into genera, genera into families, etc., they took as a basis the external similarity of forms. The reasons for this similarity remained unrevealed. ,
The solution to this most important issue belongs to Ch. Darin, who showed that the reason for the similarity can be a common origin, i.e. kinship. Since the time of Charles Darwin, systematics has become an evolutionary science. If a taxonomist zoologist now unites the genera of dogs, foxes and jackals into a single family of canines, then he proceeds not only from the external similarity of forms, but also from the commonality of their origin (kinship). The common origin is proven by studying the historical development of the described species.
In order to build a system of a particular group, scientists use a set of the most significant features: they study its historical development based on fossil remains, study the complexity of the anatomical structure of modern species, the characteristics of reproduction, the complexity of organization (precellular - cellular, non-nuclear - nuclear, unicellular - multicellular), compare their embryonic development, features of chemical composition and physiology, study the type of storage substances, modern and past distribution on our planet. This allows us to determine the position of a given species among others and build a natural system that reflects the degree of relatedness between groups of organisms.
This is what a very simplified scheme of subordination of systematic units used for natural classification looks like:
OVERKINGDOM
SUB-KINGDOM
FAMILY
(precellular and cellular)
(non-nuclear and nuclear)
(plants, animals, mushrooms, shotguns,
(unicellular, multicellular)
(e.g. arthropods or chordates)
(eg insects)
(for example, butterflies)
(for example, whitefish)
(for example, whitefish)
(for example, cabbage whites)
TEST YOURSELF
1. What is the significance of the works of K. Linnaeus for the development of systematics?
2. Can we say that systematics is a reflection of the evolutionary process? Explain your answer.
1. Diversity of organisms
Tasks with solutions
1. They occupy an intermediate position between invertebrates and vertebrates
1. Stingrays
2. Sharks
3. Lancelets
4. Hatteria
Explanation: stingrays and sharks are cartilaginous fish, tuataria are a subclass of reptiles, and the lancelet occupies an intermediate position. The correct answer is 3.
2. The type of chamomile combines
1. A variety of flowering plants
2. Many similar populations
3. Related plant genera
4. Plants of the same natural community
Explanation: a species is divided into populations, which are the elementary units of evolution (that is, from them, potentially, new species will arise in the process of evolution). The correct answer is 2.
3. Establish the sequence of subordination of systematic categories in animals, starting with the smallest.
1. Wolf (canine)
2. Mammals
3. Common fox
4. Predatory
5. Chordates
6. Fox
Explanation: The classification of animals looks like this: phylum → class → order → family → genus → species. Type - chordates, class - mammals, order - carnivores, family - wolfs (canines), genus - fox, species - common fox. But we need the reverse order (since from the smallest category). The correct answer is 361425.
1. Weasel and ermine belong to the order of predatory mammals, since
1. These are small animals with a long narrow body on short legs
2. They have well-developed canines and molars
3. They have well-developed hair and undercoat
4. They have a protective body coloration
Answer: 2.
2. The main task of taxonomy is to study
1. Stages of historical development of organisms
2. Relationships between organisms and the environment
3. Adaptation of organisms to living conditions
4. Diversity of organisms and establishment of their relationships
Answer: 4.
3. The initial unit of taxonomy of organisms is
1. View
2. Rod
3. Population
4. Individual
Answer: 1.
4. The correct scheme for classifying plants:
1. Species → genus → family → class → division
2. Species → family → genus → class → division
3. Species → department → class → genus → family
4. Species → class → department → genus → family
Answer: 1.
5. Establish the sequence of systematic categories characteristic of the plant kingdom, starting with the smallest.
1. Angiosperms
2. Nightshades
3. Dicotyledons
4. Black nightshade
5. Nightshade
Answer: 45231.
6. Establish a sequence reflecting the systematic position of the cabbage white species in the classification of animals, starting with the smallest group.
1. Insects
2. Cabbage whites
3. Lepidoptera
4. Arthropods
5. Belyanki
Answer: 25314.
7. Establish the sequence of systematic groups of animals, starting with the smallest.
1. Mammals
2. Mustelidae
3. Pine marten
4. Martens
5. Chordates
6. Predatory
Answer: 342615.
2. Kingdom of bacteria.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Soil environment
2. Aquatic environment
3. Air environment
4. Another organism
2. Chemosynthetic bacteria are
1. Iron bacteria
2. Fermentation bacteria
3. Lactic acid bacteria
4. Blue-green (cyanobacteria)
Explanation: chemosynthetics are organisms that obtain energy by processing inorganic substances (compounds of iron, sulfur, nitrogen, etc.). Lactic acid and fermentation bacteria break down sugars, and cyanobacteria are photosynthetics. The correct answer is 1.
3. Why are bacteria classified into a special kingdom?
1. Bacteria do not have a formed nucleus or mitochondria
2. A bacterial cell does not have cytoplasm and ribosomes
3. Among them there are only unicellular forms
Explanation: bacteria are classified as a separate kingdom because they differ from other organisms in too many ways (lack of membrane organelles, circular DNA, extrachromosomal genetic material, cell wall structure, and many others). The correct answer is 1.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Which lifestyle group does the dysentery bacillus belong to?
3. Symbionts
4. Autotrophs
Answer: 2.
2. A group of bacteria living in collaboration with other organisms is
2. Symbionts
3. Consumers
Answer: 2.
3. Nodule bacteria, according to their feeding method, are classified as
1. Chemotroph
2. Heterotrophs
3. Autotrophs
Answer: 2.
4. What bacteria improve nitrogen nutrition of plants?
1. Fermentation
2. Nodules
3. Acetic acid
Answer: 2.
5. Life on Earth is impossible without the cycle of substances, in which bacteria and fungi play a role
1. Manufacturers of organic substances
2. Destroyers of organic substances
3. Source of energy for other organisms
4. Source of nitrogen, water and carbon dioxide
Answer: 2.
6. What is the white fluffy coating that forms during long-term storage of bread and other products?
1. Thallus lichen
2. Plant spores
3. Mold mycelium
4. Colony of bacteria
Answer: 3.
7. Under unfavorable conditions, bacteria form
1. Gametes
2. Zygotes
3. Controversy
4. Zoospores
Answer: 3.
8. Why are bacteria classified as prokaryotes?
1. They do not have cytoplasm and cell wall
2. They do not have a formal core
3. Their body consists of one cell
4. They are microscopic in size
Answer: 2.
9. What process is missing in pathogenic bacteria?
1. Breathing
2. Photosynthesis
3. Reproduction
4. Selection
Answer: 2.
3. Kingdom of mushrooms.
Tasks with solutions
1. Saprotrophic mushrooms are used for nutrition
1. Air nitrogen
2. Carbon dioxide and oxygen
3. Organic substances of dead bodies
4. Organic substances that they create themselves during photosynthesis
Explanation: saprotrophs decompose organisms, respectively, the correct answer is 3.
2. What is mycorrhiza?
1. Mushroom root
2. Plant root system
3. Mycelium spreading in the soil
4. Mushroom threads forming the fruiting body
Explanation: mycorrhiza is a symbiosis of a fungus and a plant (tree). The correct answer is 1.
3. Fungal cells, unlike bacterial cells, have
1. Cytoplasm
2. Plasma membrane
3. Core
4. Ribosomes
Explanation: Bacterial cells do not have a formed nucleus (nuclear membrane), and bacterial cells do not. The correct answer is 3.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Tinder fungus living on birch trees
1. Improves nitrogen nutrition of the tree
2. Destroys wood tissue, using organic substances for nutrition
3. Improves the tree’s absorption of water and minerals from the soil
4. Provides the tree with organic substances
Answer: 2.
2. Mushrooms, unlike plants,
1. Reproduce using spores
2. They do not have a cellular structure
3. Not capable of photosynthesis
4. They have a formed nucleus in the cell
Answer: 3.
3. The cell wall of most fungi contains
1. Chitin
2. Pulp
3. Fiber
4. Glycogen
Answer: 1.
4. What do fungi and bacteria have in common?
1. The presence of cytoplasm with organelles and a nucleus with chromosomes
2. Asexual reproduction using spores
3. Their destruction of organic substances to inorganic ones
4. Existence in the form of unicellular and multicellular organisms
Answer: 3.
5. Mushrooms have long been considered plants because they
1. They have a similar cellular structure to plants
2. Fixed, grow throughout life
3. Belong to the group of heterotrophic organisms
4. Have a similar metabolic process
Answer: 2.
6. The mycelium of porcini mushrooms, settling on the roots of a birch tree, receives from it
1. Minerals
2. Organic matter
3. Phosphorus compounds
4. Sulfur compounds
Answer: 2.
7. What is the role of fungi in the cycle of substances in nature?
1. They form proteins from inorganic substances
2. Synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
3. Destroy organic residues
4. They release oxygen into the atmosphere
Answer: 3.
8. What are the nutritional features of cap mushrooms?
1. Mycelium synthesizes organic substances from inorganic ones
2. Use ready-made organic substances
3. Absorb water and salts from the soil with rhizoids
4. Photosynthesis occurs in the cells of the upper layers of the cap
Answer: 2.
9. Fungi, compared to bacteria, have a higher level of organization, since
1. Their cells have a dense membrane
2. According to the method of nutrition, they are heterotrophs
3. Their cells have a formed nucleus
4. Their spores endure unfavorable conditions.
Answer: 3.
10. How do fungi differ from bacteria?
1. They constitute a group of nuclear organisms (eukaryotes)
2. They belong to heterotrophic organisms
3. They reproduce by spores
4. Unicellular and multicellular organisms
5. When breathing, they use oxygen from the air
6. Participate in the cycle of substances in the ecosystem
Answer: 134.
11. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic and the group of mushrooms to which it belongs
Characteristics Group of mushrooms
A. Form fruit affairs 1. Hat
B. Form at the ends of hyphae 2. Molds
heads with spores
B. Develop on food products
D. Used to obtain
antibiotics
D. Enter into symbiosis with plant roots
Answer: 12221.
4. Plant Kingdom
Tasks with solutions
1. Tuber and bulb are
1. Organs of soil nutrition
2. Modified shoots
3. Generative organs
4. Rudimentary shoots
Explanation: a tuber is a modified shortened shoot of a plant, a bulb is a modified, usually underground shoot of a plant. The correct answer is 2.
2. The embryo with a supply of nutrients is included in the
1. Controversy
2. Semenya
3. Kidneys
4. Thicknesses
Explanation: the embryo with a supply of nutrients is included in the seed (to nourish the plant primordium during the first period of life). The correct answer is 2.
3. Plants, unlike organisms of other kingdoms,
1. Have a cellular structure
2. Cells contain chloroplasts
3. Have various organs and tissues
4. Reproduce using spores
Explanation: the overwhelming majority of plants are green (contains chloroplasts). The correct answer is 2.
4. During the process of respiration, plants are provided
1. Energy
2. Water
3. Organic substances
4. Minerals
Explanation: Plants, like all other organisms, respire and during this process energy is released. The correct answer is 1.
5. The generative organ - the flower - is present in
2. Ferns
3. Angiosperms
4. Lycopods
Explanation: the presence of a flower and a fruit are distinctive features of angiosperms; other groups do not have such organs. The correct answer is 3.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Elements of the leaf conduction system, consisting of non-living cells -
1. Sieve tubes
2. Fiber
3. Vessels
4. Cambium cells
Answer: 3.
2. The growth of a woody stem in length occurs due to division and growth
1. Cambium cells
2. Sieve tubes
3. Stem apex cells
4. Stem base cells
Answer: 3.
3. Root hairs provide
1. Root growth in thickness
2. Root growth in length
3. Protecting the root from contact with the soil
4. Absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil by roots
Answer: 4.
4. Plant growth occurs due to the division, growth and differentiation of tissue cells
1. Pokrovnoy
2. Mechanical
3. Photosynthetic
4. Educational
Answer: 4.
5. What is the role of leguminous plants in nature?
1. Serve as food for humans
2. They are consumers in the natural community
3. Form the lower tier in the natural community
4. Enrich the soil with nitrogen salts
Answer: 4.
6. Through the stomata of plants occurs
1. Gas exchange
2. Transport of mineral salts
3. Transport of organic substances
4. Heat release
Answer: 1.
7. The root suction zone consists of
1. Sieve cells
2. Root cap
3. Root hairs
4. Vascular cells
Answer: 3.
8. What plant tissue is involved in the evaporation process?
1. Pokrovnaya
2. Mechanical
3. Main
4. Educational
Answer: 1.
9. All plants - from algae to angiosperms - have
1. Cellular structure
2. Fabrics
3. Stem with leaves
4. Conducting system
Answer: 1.
10. Pollen from flowering plants is formed in
1. Ovule
2. Pistil stigma
3. Stamens
4. Pistil ovaries
Answer: 3.
11. Chloroplasts play an important role in the lives of most
1. Bacteria
2. Invertebrate animals
3. Cap mushrooms
4. Plants
Answer: 4.
12. Which feature is characteristic only of the plant kingdom?
1. They form polymers from monomers
3. Have a cellulose cell wall
Answer: 3.
13. An underground shoot differs from a root in that it has
1. Kidney
2. Growth zones
3. Vessels
4. Bark
Answer: 1.
14. Which kingdom organisms are characterized by soil and air nutrition?
1. Mushrooms
2. Bacteria
3. Plants
4. Animals
Answer: 3.
15. Water and minerals flow from the root to the leaves through
1. Lubu
2. Wood
3. Core
4. Traffic jam
Answer: 2.
16. Shoot is a vegetative organ formed
1. Top of the stem
2. Internodes and nodes
3. Rudimentary leaves
4. Stem with leaves and buds
Answer: 4.
17. What are the characteristics of plants pollinated by insects?
1. Have nectaries and brightly colored perianths
2. Grow in groups, forming thickets or groves
3. They bloom before the leaves bloom or simultaneously with their appearance.
4. They have inconspicuous small flowers collected in inflorescences
Answer: 1.
18. A modified shoot is
1. Rhizome
2. Mushroom root
3. Root tuber
4. Root vegetable
Answer: 1.
19. What characteristics are inherent in plants?
1. Limited growth
2. Lifelong growth
3. Autotrophic mode of nutrition
4. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition
5. The presence of fiber in cell membranes
6. Presence of chitin in cell membranes
Answer: 235.
20. Establish the sequence of location of zones (sections) in the root, starting from the top.
1. Venue area
2. Division zone
3. Suction zone
4. Growth zone
Answer: 2431.
5. Variety of plants.
Tasks with solutions
1. The complexity of ferns compared to algae is the appearance of
1. Cellular structure
2. Chloroplasts
3. Tissues and organs
4. Photosynthesis
Explanation: algae do not have tissues, the entire algae is a thallus - a thallus; in ferns tissue differentiation already occurs. The correct answer is 3.
2. Higher plants differ from lower ones
1. Dismemberment of the body into organs
2. The presence of a thallus
3. Vegetative propagation
4. Reproduction by spores
Explanation: lower plants are algae, their body is not divided into organs, but is a thallus, while higher plants already have differentiation of tissues and bodies into organs. The correct answer is 1.
3. Plants of the angiosperm department, unlike gymnosperms,
1. Have a root, stem, leaves
2. Have a flower and a fruit
3. Reproduce by seeds
4. They release oxygen into the atmosphere during photosynthesis
Explanation: A distinctive feature of angiosperms is the presence of a fruit and a flower. The correct answer is 2.
4. Mosses have the simplest structure among higher plants, since they have
1. No roots
2. Stem with narrow leaves
3. A lot of spores are formed
4. There are air cells
Explanation: mosses have a stem, form spores, have no air cells, and have no roots, only rhizoids (root-like structures). The correct answer is 1.
5. The main feature by which plants are grouped into families is their structural features
1. Semenya
2. Flower and fruit
3. Leaves and stem
4. Root system
Explanation: each family is characterized by its own flower formula and fruit characteristics (this only applies to angiosperms, since only they have these structures). The correct answer is 2.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Ferns, unlike angiosperms, do not have
1. Conductive system
2. Flowers and fruits
3. Chloroplasts in cells
4. Epidermis with stomata
Answer: 2.
2. Which group of plants formed coal deposits?
1. Bryophytes
2. Ferns
3. Flowering
4. Ancient algae
Answer: 2.
3. Fern-like plants, unlike flowering plants, reproduce using
1. Dispute
2. Roots
3. Budding
4. Root tubers
Answer: 1.
4. Algae, unlike bryophytes,
1. Have covering tissue
2. Synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones
3. They reproduce sexually
4. I have a thallus
Answer: 4.
5. What features are characteristic of the class of monocotyledonous angiosperms?
1. Fibrous root system, arcuate venation of leaves
2. Taproot system, four-membered flowers
3. Development with alternation of generations
4. The presence of double fertilization
Answer: 1.
6. By what signs can gymnosperms be recognized?
1. Have fruits and seeds
2. Sex cells mature in the bud
3. They bloom in the spring, before the leaves bloom.
4. Have xylem and phloem
Answer: 2.
7. Why are flowering plants classified as higher plants?
1. They live in a land-air environment
2. Their body consists of tissues and organs
3. Their body is a collection of cells - thallus
4. In their development cycle, the asexual generation is replaced by the sexual one
Answer: 2.
8. Indicate a feature that is characteristic only of the plant kingdom
1. Have a cellular structure
2. They breathe, eat, grow, reproduce
3. Have photosynthetic tissue
4. They feed on ready-made organic matter.
Answer: 3.
9. On what basis are mosses classified as members of the plant kingdom?
1. In the process of respiration, mosses consume organic substances
2. Mosses contain chloroplasts in their cells, in which photosynthesis occurs
3. Moss cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm, and outer cell membrane
4. Mosses have a cellular structure and are formed by various tissues
Answer: 2.
10. For the class of monocotyledons, unlike dicotyledons, it is characteristic
1. The presence of a fruit that protects the seeds from unfavorable conditions
2. The presence of three-membered flowers with a simple perianth
3. Double fertilization and development of seeds and ovule
4. Distribution of fruits and seeds by wind, insects, water
Answer: 2.
11. Dicotyledons, unlike monocotyledons, have
1. Reticulate venation of leaves
2. Fibrous root system
3. Three-membered flowers
4. Stem-straw
Answer: 1.
12. Conifers do not have
1. Pollen grains
2. Ovules
3. Seeds
4. Fruits
Answer: 1.
13. The main feature by which flowering plants are classified into one class is
1. Structure of the fetus
2. Seed structure
3. Reproduction method
4. Living together
Answer: 2.
14. Conifers, unlike ferns, have
1. Gametes
2. Roots
3. Fruits
4. Seeds
Answer: 4.
2. Develop from a zygote
3. Lie openly on the scales of cones
4. Develop on shoots
Answer: 3.
16. The similarity between mosses and ferns is
1. Formation of a prothallus
2. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition
3. Reproduction by spores
4. Presence of roots
Answer: 3.
17. Establish a correspondence between a plant characteristic and the department for which it is characteristic.
Plant trait Division
A. Leafy plants, 1. Bryophytes
having no roots 2. Fern-like
B. They have a well-developed
conducting system
B. Some plants contain
aquifer cells that store water
D. The conducting system is underdeveloped,
therefore plant growth is limited
D. Sexual generation (gametophyte)
predominates over asexual (sporophyte)
E. Sporophyte predominates over gametophyte
Answer: 121112.
18. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of plants and the department to which they belong
Plant trait Division
A. Sexual generation - prothallus 1. Fern-like
B. Mainly trees and shrubs 2. Gymnosperms
B. They have an ovule
D. Produce pollen
D. Water is required for sexual reproduction.
Department: 12221.
19. Mosses, ka and angiosperms,
1. Have a cellular structure
2. Have roots, stems, leaves
3. Produce flowers and fruits
5. Capable of photosynthesis
6. Reproduce by seeds
Answer: 145.
1. They are autotrophic organisms
2. Formed by ovules
3. They reproduce by spores
4. Does not require water during fertilization
5. In the process of life they interact with the environment
6. Mostly have the form of trees, less often shrubs
Answer: 246.
21. Establish a correspondence between a plant characteristic and the department to which it belongs
Plant trait Division
A. Reproduction is not associated with water 1. Bryophytes
B. Presence of rhizoids
D. Gametophyte dominates sporophyte
D. Representatives of the department are cuckoo flax and sphagnum
E. Representatives of the department are larch, cypress and juniper
Answer: 211112.
22. Single-celled green algae - Chlamydomonas - as a representative of the plant kingdom, has
1. Cell wall containing chitin
2. Cell wall containing fiber
3. Chromatophore containing chlorophyll
4. Nuclear contents located in the cytoplasm without a membrane
5. Reserve substance starch
6. DNA closed in the form of a ring
Answer: 235.
23. Angiosperms differ from ferns in that
1. They have double fertilization
2. Produce dry and juicy fruits
3. They have chloroplasts in which photosynthesis occurs
4. Have vegetative organs
5. They have flowers of different sizes, shapes, colors
6. Does not require water during germination
Answer: 125.
6. Animal Kingdom.
Tasks with solutions
1. After the pupal stage, a butterfly develops
1. Laying eggs
2. First generation tracks
3. Second generation tracks
4. Adult insects
Explanation: Insect development proceeds with metamorphosis and after the pupal stage, the adult insect stage begins. The correct answer is 4.
2. What type of animals are those whose exoskeleton contains chitin?
1. Chordata
2. Arthropods
3. Shellfish
4. Annelids
Explanation: Among the animals listed, only arthropods have an exoskeleton, which animals shed periodically. The correct answer is 2.
3. Cell of a single-celled animal
1. Does not have an endoplasmic reticulum
2. Creates organic substances from inorganic ones
3. Has vacuoles with cell sap
4. Performs all the functions of a living organism
Explanation: unicellular animals (protozoa) consist of one cell, which performs all the functions of a living organism and has all the organelles of a eukaryotic cell. Their type of nutrition is both heterotrophic and autotrophic. The correct answer is 4.
4. Which animal reproduces by budding?
1. White planaria
2. Freshwater hydra
3. Earthworm
4. Great pond snail
Explanation: budding is a rather primitive method of reproduction, characteristic of lower organisms, for example. such as freshwater hydra. The correct answer is 2.
5. In all protozoa and invertebrates
1. The body has a cellular structure
2. Cells form tissues
3. Cells and tissues form organs
4. Organs form organ systems
Explanation: Protozoa and invertebrates are made up of cells, but the body of a protozoan consists of only one cell, which performs all the functions of a living organism. Consequently, protozoa have neither tissues nor organs. The correct answer is 1.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Insect larvae lack the ability to
1. Active movement
2. Sexual reproduction
3. Self-catering
4. Molting and growth
Answer: 2.
2. The body of coelenterates consists of
1. Single cell
2. Single layer of cells
3. Two layers of cells
4. Three layers of cells
Answer: 3.
3. Scales on the wings, sucking mouthparts, and caterpillar larvae have
1. Butterflies
2. Diptera
3. Hymenoptera
4. Bugs
Answer: 1.
4. There is no radial symmetry of the body in
1. Cornermouth jellyfish
2. White planaria
3. Freshwater hydra
4. Red coral
Answer: 2.
5. The type of molluscs includes animals that have
1. An elongated cylindrical body, pointed at both ends
2. Body divided into similar segments
3. Chitin cover
4. Soft unarticulated body
Answer: 4.
6. In what case can animal behavior be called instinct?
1. Bees carry nectar and pollen to the hives
2. In response to irritation by salt, the ciliate swims to the side
3. Green euglena swims to a lighted area
4. The fish in the aquarium swim up to the feeder when tapped.
Answer: 1.
7. In insects, unlike other invertebrates,
1. There are four pairs of legs on the cephalothorax, the abdomen is unsegmented
2. Limbs are attached to the cephalothorax and abdomen
3. There are two pairs of branched antennae on the head
4. The body consists of three sections, on the chest there are three pairs of legs
Answer: 4.
1. Leukocytes
2. Red blood cells
3. Platelets
4. Lymphocytes
Answer: 2.
1. Support
2. Respiratory
3. Sexual
4. Digestion
Answer: 3.
10. Why is the freshwater hydra classified as a coelenterate?
1. Feeds on swimming animals
2. Has two layers of cells: ectoderm and endoderm
3. Lives in fresh water
4. Responds to the action of stimuli
Answer: 2.
11. The body cavity, mantle and shell have
1. Coelenterates
2. Crustaceans
3. Shellfish
4. Arthropods
Answer: 3.
12. Euglena green, unlike other protozoa,
1. Capable of photosynthesis
2. Absorbs oxygen when breathing
3. Moves actively
4. Responsive to environmental changes
Answer: 1.
13. Blood from an earthworm
1. Fills gaps between organs
2. Flows in blood vessels
3. Pours into paired excretory tubes
4. From the body cavity enters the intestines
Answer: 2.
14. Which mollusk is the intermediate host of the liver fluke?
1. Reel
2. Perlovitsa
3. Small pond snail
4. Toothless
Answer: 3.
15. The first bilaterally symmetrical three-layered animals were
1. Shellfish
2. Coelenterates
3. Annelids
4. Flatworms
Answer: 4.
16. A coelenterate animal - freshwater hydra - extracts oxygen from water through respiration through
1. Gills
2. Blood vessels
3. Body surface
4. Lungs
Answer: 3.
17. Cattle become infected with liver fluke when
1. Damage to the body
2. Grazing in meadows near fresh water bodies
3. Feeding with dried hay
4. Bite by blood-sucking insects
Answer: 2.
18. Among invertebrate animals, only annelids have
1. Ventral nerve cord
2. Closed circulatory system
3. Articulated body
4. Bilateral body symmetry
Answer: 2.
19. What characteristic allows us to classify the common amoeba as a subkingdom of protozoa?
1. Unicellular structure
2. Habitat in the aquatic environment
3. Small sizes
4. Ability to move
Answer: 1.
20. Establish a correspondence between the sign of an animal and the type for which it is characteristic
Animal sign Animal type
A. Growth and development are accompanied by molting 1. Annelids
B. Body segments are approximately the same, 2. Arthropods
do not form departments
B. Body parts are different
by structure and size
D. There is a skin-muscle sac
D. Breathing using tracheas
E. The integument is dense, composed of chitin
Answer: 212122.
21. Establish a correspondence between the structural feature of arthropods and the class for which it is characteristic
Structural feature Class arthropods
A. Body parts: head, chest, abdomen 1. Arachnids
B. Three pairs of walking legs 2. Insects
B. Presence of arachnoid glands
D. Four pairs of walking legs
D. Body parts: cephalothorax, abdomen
E. Presence of antennae
Answer: 221112.
22. Establish the sequence in which the bovine tapeworm develops, starting with the egg
1. Formation of adult tapeworm in the human intestine
2. Finn gets into the human intestines along with undercooked or fried meat
3. Transformation of six-hooked larvae into Finns
4. Emergence of microscopic six-hooked larvae from eggs in the stomach
5. Capturing tapeworm eggs along with grass by cattle
6. Penetration of larvae into the blood and then into the muscles
Answer: 546321.
23. Establish a correspondence between the sign of an animal and the type for which this sign is characteristic
Animal Trait Type
A. The body consists of the head, 1. Annelids
torso and legs 2. Molluscs
B. The torso forms
leathery fold - mantle
B. Closed circulatory system
D. The body cavity is divided into
segments with transverse partitions
D. Excretory organs - kidneys
Answer: 22112.
7. Chordates.
Tasks with solutions
1. In mammals, gas exchange occurs in
1. Trachea
2. Bronchi
3. Larynx
4. Pulmonary vesicles
Explanation: Mammals breathe through lungs, which consist of alveoli (vesicles that are connected by blood vessels). The correct answer is 4.
2. Birds have a heart -
1. Four-chamber
2. Two-chamber
3. Three-chamber, with a septum in the ventricle
4. Three-chamber, without a septum in the ventricle
Explanation: Birds are very developed animals, they have many advanced features, such as a four-chambered heart and warm-bloodedness. The correct answer is 1.
3. In the process of evolution, the spine first appeared in
1. Lancelet
2. Arthropods
3. Amphibians
4. Pisces
Explanation: The first vertebrates are fish. The lancelet has no backbone. The correct answer is 4.
4. In the process of evolution, two atria in the heart first appeared in
1. Reptiles
2. Pisces
3. Amphibians
4. Skullless
Explanation: Fish have a two-chambered heart - one atrium and one ventricle; amphibians have a three-chambered heart - two atria and one ventricle. The correct answer is 3.
5. Vertebrates with a three-chambered heart, pulmonary and cutaneous respiration -
1. Amphibians
2. Cartilaginous fish
3. Mammals
4. Reptiles
Explanation: Amphibians have a three-chambered heart - two atria and one ventricle, pulmonary respiration (in adults), very thin skin through which gas exchange occurs. The correct answer is 1.
Tasks for independent solution
1. Mammary glands of mammals are modified glands
1. Sweat
2. Greasy
3. Salivary
4. Endocrine
Answer: 1.
2. Which part of the brain is most developed in mammals?
1. Forebrain
2. Cerebellum
3. Midbrain
4. Diencephalon
Answer: 1.
3. What structural feature of the circulatory organs of birds that provides a high level of metabolism appeared in the process of evolution?
1. The presence of two circles of blood circulation
2. Complete separation of arterial and venous blood
3. Rhythmic heart function and automaticity
4. The presence of valves between the atria and ventricles
Answer: 2.
4. Snakes are different from lizards
1. The presence of horny cover
2. Feeding on live prey
3. Fused transparent eyelids
4. The ability to hide in holes
Answer: 3.
5. Dry skin with horny scales or scutes covers the body
1. Amphibians
2. Reptiles
3. Cartilaginous fish
4. Bony fish
Answer: 2.
6. Among vertebrates, the circulatory and nervous systems have the most complex structure
1. Cartilaginous and bony fish
2. Tailed and tailless amphibians
3. Aquatic reptiles
4. Birds and mammals
Answer: 4.
7. The growth of incisors throughout life is observed in
1. Caresses
2. Proteins
3. Cats
4. Mole
Answer: 2.
8. How do higher mammals differ from marsupials?
1. Development of the coat
2. Duration of intrauterine development
3. Feeding offspring with milk
4. Internal fertilization
Answer: 2.
9. Snakes can swallow prey many times the diameter of their body thanks to
1. Flattened head and wide mouth
2. A small number of teeth and a voluminous stomach
3. High mobility of the jaw bones
4. Large head and body sizes
Answer: 3.
10. The structure of a tadpole’s heart resembles a heart.
1. Pisces
2. Shellfish
3. Reptile
4. Adult amphibian
Answer: 1.
11. Skullless animals have a skeleton
1. Bone
2. Cartilaginous
3. Consists of chitin
4. Represented by a chord
Answer: 4.
12. A feature of the cover of reptiles is the presence
1. Single layer epidermis
2. Horny scales
3. Chitinous cover
4. Skin glands
Answer: 2.
13. Despite the fact that crocodiles have a four-chambered heart, their body cells are supplied with blood
1. Oxygenated
2. Venous
3. Saturated with carbon dioxide
4. Mixed
Answer: 4.
14. In vertebrates with a constant body temperature and a high level of metabolism, cells are supplied with blood
1. Venous
2. Mixed
3. Arterial
4. Saturated with carbon dioxide
Answer: 3.
15. The internal skeleton is the main feature
1. Vertebrates
2. Insects
3. Crustaceans
4. Arachnids
Answer: 1.
16. Which vertebrates became the first true land animals?
1. Amphibians
2. Reptiles
3. Birds
4. Mammals
Answer: 2.
17. What feature of the reproduction of birds distinguishes them from reptiles?
1. Abundance of yolk in the egg
2. Laying eggs
3. Feeding offspring
4. Internal fertilization
Answer: 3.
18. The property of lizards that allows them to avoid being grabbed by a predator is
1. Tail drop
2. Well-developed sense of smell
3. Lack of limbs in legless forms
4. Isolation of the cervical body
Answer: 1.
19. In connection with amphibians reaching land
1. Sex cells have lost their supply of nutrients
2. Webbing has formed between the toes
3. The body has acquired a streamlined shape
4. Movable eyelids appeared to protect the eyes
Answer: 4.
20. Which of the following features indicates the complexity of the organization of mammals compared to reptiles?
1. Increased gas exchange surface in the lungs
2. Appearance of the internal skeleton
3. Changes in the structure of the limbs
4. Increase in the number of body parts
Answer: 1.
21. During unfavorable periods of the year, reptiles
1. Actively shed skin
2. Subject to metamorphosis
3. They fall into a daze
4. Eat heavily
Answer: 3.
22. Select one of the characteristic features of the type of chordate animal
1. Nervous system in the form of a tube
2. Ventral nerve cord
3. Single chamber heart
4. Five-fingered limbs
Answer: 1.
23. Establish a correspondence between the trait and the class of animals for which it is characteristic
Sign Animal class
A. Formation of the tarsus 1. Birds
B. Development of body hair 2. Mammals
B. Presence of sweat glands in the skin
D. Development of the placenta in most
D. Presence of the coccygeal gland
E. Formation of air sacs
Answer: 122211.
24. In dogs, cats and other mammals
1. Three-chambered heart with an incomplete septum in the ventricle
2. Four-chambered heart
3. Arterial blood does not mix with venous blood
4. Arterial and venous blood are not completely separated
5. Metabolism occurs intensively
6. Teeth are not differentiated
Answer: 235.
25. Establish a correspondence between the sign of an animal and the class to which it belongs
Animal trait Class
A. Thin, mucous skin 1. Amphibians
B. Breathes with the help of 2. Reptiles
light and moist skin
B. The skin is dry, the respiratory organs are lungs
D. Three-chambered heart with incomplete
septum in the ventricle
D. Three-chambered heart without
septa in the ventricle
E. Reproduces in water
Answer: 112211.
26. Establish the sequence in which the sections in the spine of a mammal are located, starting with the cervical
1. Lumbar
2. Chest
3. Tail
4. Sacral
5. Cervical
Answer: 52143.
27. What characteristics were used to determine whether Archeopteryx belongs to the class of birds?
1. Body covered with feathers
2. The forelimbs have three toes with claws
3. On the hind limbs there is an elongated bone - the tarsus
4. There are four toes on the feet (three pointing forward, one pointing back)
5. There are teeth on the jaws
6. The sternum is small, without a keel.
Answer: 134.
28. Establish a correspondence between representatives of vertebrates and the characteristics of their body temperature
Animals Features of body temperature
A. Waterfowl 1. Constant
B. Lungfish 2. Fickle
B. Cetaceans
G. Tailed amphibians
D. Scaly reptiles
E. Apes
Answer: 121221.
Author of the solution: Lunkova E. Yu.
The tasks are taken from the collection of tasks for preparing for the Unified State Exam, edited by G. S. Kalinova.
Purpose and objectives of the lesson:
- Educational– continue to form ideas about the diversity of the organic world, consolidate students’ knowledge of the main systematic groups of living organisms that have formed over millions of years of evolution.
- Developmental– develop the ability to highlight the main thing, the ability to analyze; develop students’ ability to operate with concepts and form a scientific worldview.
- Educational– reveal the significance of K. Linnaeus’s works for the development of biology; on the basis of this, continue to develop interest and a positive attitude towards studying the history of the development of biology.
Equipment: portraits of K. Linnaeus, tables on general biology. Presentation, slides that are shown on the screen using a projector ( Annex 1 ).
DURING THE CLASSES
I. Organizational moment. Greeting students
(Lesson – 2 hours)
II. Learning a new topic
1. Teacher's word. The problem we will need to solve is: Why is the diversity of the modern organic world the result of biological evolution?
The long-term evolution of primitive living organisms that once appeared on Earth, covering a period of several billion years, through the replacement of some groups by others, led to the modern diversity of the organic world.
The diversity of life on Earth is difficult to describe. It is believed that over 10 million species of living organisms now live on our planet, and at least 500 million species became extinct in past geological eras. No, and there will never be a person who would know all these species. Moreover, there is a need for a system of living nature, guided by which we could find the location of any organism that interests us, be it a bacterium that causes a disease, a new fungus, a beetle or mite, a bird or a fish. Naturalists understood this need a long time ago, when the era of great geographical discoveries began.
– What did the evolutionary process ultimately lead to? ( Annex 1
Slide 2).
So, at the end of the 17th century. - early 18th century A huge amount of factual descriptive material is accumulating in biological science.
“The Ariadne thread of botany is a system without which there is chaos in botany,” wrote C. Linnaeus in “Philosophy of Botany.” “The system is here, by grasping it you can safely get out of the diversity of facts.”
2. Message from the first student."History of Taxonomy" ( Appendix 2 , Annex 1 Slide 3).
Poetry of titles
Flowers, trees, herbs...
I was earlier in the clearing
He walked with his head up.
I am with ancient names
Was vaguely familiar:
He called the trees trees,
I called the flower a flower.
The great genius was right
I gave the flowers names:
In the fatherland of plants
There are no nameless herbs.Georgy Kondakov
3. Second student's message"Carl Linnaeus and his services to science" ( Annex 1 Slides 4-7).
K. Linnaeus tried to systematize everything. ( Annex 1
Slide 20). Descriptions of plants and animals were complex and contradictory. Each type of plant and animal was called differently in different countries and even had several names in one country (see p. 207– name of a marmot). This led to errors and caused controversy.
Linnaeus took stamens and pistils as the basis for plant taxonomy - such small parts of a flower that naturalists did not pay attention to.
In fact, the pistil and stamen are the main parts of the flower. They are involved in the formation of fruits and seeds. ( Annex 1
Slide 8).
Teacher (students write in notebooks). Linnaeus divided all plants into 24 classes according to the number and structure of stamens, divided the classes into orders, orders into genera, and genera into species.
Under view he understood groups of organisms that descend from common ancestors and produce fertile offspring when crossed.
Linnaeus gave each plant a species and generic name in Latin.
This way of naming plants in two words is called binary(double) nomenclature. An attempt to apply binary nomenclature was made 100 years before Linnaeus (K. Baugin), but Linnaeus was the first to apply it widely and firmly established it in science.
Of the two words, one - a noun - denotes the genus, and the second (most often an adjective) - the name of the species.
For example, Buttercup caustic And Golden buttercup, red clover And Creeping clover, Durum wheat And Soft wheat. Here Buttercup, Clover, Wheat – names of genera, and golden, acrid, red, creeping, hard, soft – names of species.
Previously, the rose hip was called “an ordinary forest rose with a “new fragrant flower” - according to Linnaeus, it became Forest rose. Linnaeus calculated that from six adjectives and three nouns, that is, from nine words, names for 100 species could be made.
And if earlier, according to contemporaries, using species names presented “the greatest difficulty for memory, language and pen,” then the new system was practical, convenient and surprisingly facilitated the pursuit of science. Thanks to Linnaeus' system, over several decades the number of known plant species increased from 7,000 to 100,000.
Linnaeus himself knew and described about 10,000 species of plants and over 4,200 species of animals.
Linnaeus reformed the language of botany. He was the first to propose such names for flower parts as corolla, anther, nectary, ovary, stigma, filament, receptacle, peduncle, perianth. Linnaeus introduced about 100 new terms into botany.
But Linnaeus’ system, unsurpassed in its simplicity and elegance, was still artificial: it helped to recognize plants, but did not reveal their relationships.
Linnaeus himself understood the artificiality of his system, but believed that such a system, which teaches to recognize plants, is necessary, while there is no natural one.
True, Linnaeus understood a natural system as one that would reflect the order of nature established by the “Creator,” and not the historical process of development of organisms, as it is understood now.
4. Message from the third student"Carl Linnaeus and his services to science" (continuation). Linnaeus imagined the living world as a continuous chain in which plant links imperceptibly pass into animals.
Linnaeus divided all animals into six classes (mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, insects and worms) and gave each class a corresponding characteristic.
He also gave each animal a generic and specific name: Great tit, Marsh tit (gadget), Black tit (forging); House Sparrow, Field Sparrow and so on.
Linnaeus was the first to identify the classes of mammals and birds, classify the whale (which was previously mistaken for fish) as a mammal, and separate worms from insects.
Linnaeus placed humans next to monkeys. He did this 120 years before Charles Darwin, who substantiated the origin of man. But at the same time, Linnaeus noted that proximity in the system does not indicate blood relationship.
The question of the origin of species did not exist for Linnaeus. He believed that all species were created by an "omnipotent Creator."
Carl Linnaeus died on January 22, 1778. The entire Uppsala University was present at the funeral. A monument was erected on the grave with a medallion and the inscription “Charles Linnaeus, the prince of botanists. Friends and students. 1778."
– What science deals with the classification and description of related organisms? (Systematics)
5. Teacher's word
Systematics has received the greatest development in biology, where its task is to describe and designate all existing and extinct organisms, to establish family relationships and connections between individual species and groups of species. In an effort to create a complete system, or classification, of the organic world, systematics is based on data and theoretical principles of all biological disciplines; In its spirit and character, systematics is inextricably linked with the theory of evolution. The special function of taxonomy is to create a practical opportunity to navigate the many existing species of animals (about 1.5 million), plants (about 350-500 thousand) and microorganisms. This also applies to extinct species. Animal taxonomy and plant taxonomy have the same objectives and have much in common in research methods.
Charles Darwin proposed to understand the natural system as the result of the historical development of living nature. He wrote in On the Origin of Species: ... the community of origin is the connection between organisms that is revealed to us with the help of our classifications.”
Darwin theorized that the observed taxonomic structure was due to their descent from each other. This is how evolutionary taxonomy arose, which prioritizes elucidation of the origin of organisms, for which both morphological and embryological and paleontological methods are used.
A new step in this direction was taken by Darwin's follower, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel. Haeckel borrowed the concept of “family tree” from genealogy. Haeckel's family tree included all the large groups of living organisms known at that time, as well as some unknown (hypothetical) groups that played the role of an “unknown ancestor” and were placed in the forks of the branches or at the base of this tree. Such an extremely visual representation was very helpful to evolutionists, and since then - since the end of the 19th century - the Darwin-Haeckel phylogenetic systematics has dominated biological science. One of the first consequences of the victory of phylogenetics was a change in the sequence in the teaching of botany and zoology courses in schools and universities: if earlier the presentation began with mammals (as in A. Brem’s “The Life of Animals”), and then went “down” along the “ladder of nature”, then now the presentation begins with bacteria or single-celled animals.
Biological systematics– a discipline whose tasks include the development of principles for the classification of living organisms and the practical application of these principles to the construction of a system. Classification here refers to the description and placement in the system of all existing and extinct organisms.
Subject of study of taxonomy– description, designation, classification and construction of a system of living nature, which would not only reflect the similarity in the structure of organisms and their kinship, but also take into account the history of the emergence and evolution of different groups of organisms. ( Annex 1 Slides 10-15).
Currently in use set of characteristics of organisms :
- structural features of organisms and their cells;
- history of the development of the group based on fossil remains;
- features of reproduction and embryonic development;
- nucleotide composition of DNA and RNA;
- protein composition;
- food type;
- type of reserve nutrients;
- distribution of organisms, etc.
Principles of taxonomy
One of the first systems of living nature created by the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus and described it in “ Nature's system "(1758). His works form the basis of modern scientific systematics.
- K. Linnaeus based his system on two principles: binary nomenclature and hierarchy.
- According to binary nomenclature, each species is called in Latin two words: a noun and an adjective.
According to modern rules, when mentioning a species of organism in a text (scientific article, book) for the first time, the surname of the author who described it is given in Latin. For example, poisonous buttercup is written Ranunculus sceleratus Linnaeus(Poisonous buttercup Linnea). Some of the most famous taxonomists are so well known that their names are abbreviated. For example, Trifolium repens L. (Clover creeping Linnea).
Once a view has been given a name, it cannot be changed.
- The principle of hierarchy or subordination, means that animal species are united into genera, genera into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes into types, types into kingdoms.
- When classifying bacteria, fungi and plants instead of rank squad used order, and instead type - department. Often subordinate categories are used to emphasize diversity within a group, e.g. subspecies, subgenus, suborder, subclass or superfamily, superclass.
- In microbiology, terms such as " strain" And " clone ".
- Any plant or animal must consistently belong to all seven categories.
- The concept of a super-kingdom is relatively new. It was proposed in 1990 by Carl Woese and introduced the division of all biomass of the Earth: 1) eukaryotes (all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus); 2) bacteria and archaea.
View is the only taxonomic category that can be given a relatively precise definition. View is a group of individuals:
- possessing a unique set of morphological (structural) and functional characteristics, i.e. appearance, features of the location of organs and their work, etc.;
- capable of interbreeding with each other to produce fertile offspring;
- similar in genotype (number, size and shape of chromosomes);
- occupying the same ecological niche.
The study of biological diversity and the description of new species not yet known to science are still far from complete. Findings of new species are possible even among such large animals as mammals. In the mid-50s of the XX century. Leningrad zoologist A.V. Ivanov discovered a new type of animal - pogonophora. In terms of scale, this discovery can be comparable to the discovery of a new planet in the solar system.
6. Independent work
After studying the text of § 61 and using the pictures for the text, you need to fill out the table “Comparative characteristics of the kingdoms of living nature” in your notebook. ( Annex 1 Slides 17, 18). And you will answer the question posed at the beginning of the lesson - Why is the diversity of the modern organic world the result of biological evolution?
| Signs | Archaea | Bacteria | Mushrooms | Plants | Protista | Animals |
| Nuclear envelope | ||||||
| Genetic material | ||||||
| Mitochondria | ||||||
| Chloroplasts | ||||||
| Cell membrane | ||||||
| Nutrition method | ||||||
| Mobility | ||||||
| Cellular specialization | ||||||
| Breath | ||||||
| Life cycle | ||||||
7. Frontal conversation to check independent work
IV. Consolidation
Testing (oral).
1. What plants do algae belong to?
- To the lower ones;
- to the highest;
- to angiosperms;
- to gymnosperms.
2. To which division do the plants that currently occupy a dominant position on Earth belong?
- To the algae;
- to ferns;
- to gymnosperms;
- To angiosperms.
3. What group of living organisms do bacteria belong to?
- To eukaryotes;
- to prokaryotes;
- to extracellular organisms;
- all answers are correct.
4. Why are plants, fungi, and animals classified as eukaryotes?
- They do not divide by mitosis;
- they do not have a formed core;
- they have a formed core;
- they have nuclear DNA closed in a ring.
5. What subkingdoms are the animal kingdom divided into?
- On invertebrates and vertebrates;
- on amphibians, fish, reptiles, birds;
- on unicellular and multicellular;
- on worms, arthropods, mollusks, chordates.
Homework:§ 60, 61, ahead of individual assignments for the next topic.
Literature:
- Biology. General biology. Textbook for grades 10-11: textbook for educational institutions: basic level / Ed. D.K. Belyaeva, G.M. Dymshitsa; M.: Education, 2009.
- Biology. Grade 11; lesson plans from the textbook D.K. Belyaeva, G.M. Dymshitsa/aut.-state O.A. Pustokhina. – Volgograd: Teacher, 2008.
- Pavlinov I.Ya. Basic approaches in biological systematics / Electronic newspaper “Biology”, No. 17-19, 2005.
- Shipunov A.B. Fundamentals of the theory of systematics: Textbook. – M.: Open Lyceum VZMSH, Dialogue-MSU, 1999. – 56 p.
Systematics studies the biological diversity of organisms. The main goal of any systematic study is the classification of existing (and previously existing) diversity and the establishment of related and evolutionary relationships between species and other groups of organisms (taxa).
The highest taxonomic category in taxonomy is the kingdom (Regnum). Modern taxonomists distinguish from three to nine kingdoms of the organic world. The most widely known are the systems of the famous American biologist R.H. Whittaker (who substantiated the identification of five kingdoms of living nature) and one of the largest domestic botanists, academician A.L. Takhtadzhyan. According to the latter’s ideas, there are four kingdoms of the organic world on Earth:
- The kingdom Prokaryotes includes bacteria, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and radiant fungi (actinobacteria, actinomycetes).
- The kingdom Fungi unites heterotrophic, immobile, mostly filamentous organisms.
- The Plant Kingdom consists of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms (according to other taxonomists, it should include only higher plants).
- Kingdom Animals - organisms whose cells lack a dense cell membrane and do not contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments.
According to tradition, organisms included in the kingdoms of prokaryotes and fungi are considered here together with the kingdom of plants in its narrow, modern understanding.
The task of taxonomy is to catalog, compare and analyze the characteristics of organisms and create on this basis a classification system that would reflect the evolutionary relationships between organisms and would be a reflection of the evolutionary process. The classification system is divided into systematic categories, or units, subordinate to each other - taxa.
The main taxonomic category used in biological taxonomy is species. The specificity of each species is expressed morphologically and serves as an expression of its genetic characteristics. Close species form genera, close genera form families, families form orders, orders form classes, classes form divisions, and, finally, divisions form the kingdoms of the organic world. Each plant belongs to a number of successively subordinate taxa. This is a hierarchical classification system.
In biology, any scientific name of a species (including a plant species) consists of two Latin words (it is binary): it includes the name of the genus and the specific epithet. For example, black nightshade (Solanum nigrum). Each genus (including the genus Nightshade) contains a certain number of species that differ from each other in their morphology, biochemistry, role in the plant cover and other properties.
Binary Latin names of plants are accepted by the scientific community, understandable to specialists from different countries and enshrined in the International Codes of Nomenclature that regulate and define taxonomic rules. Scientific publications should use international nomenclature rather than local plant names. The founder of binary nomenclature is the outstanding Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who in 1753 published his work “Species plantarum” (“Species of Plants”).
The position of the above-mentioned species (black nightshade) in the modern classification system is as follows:
- Kingdom Plantae - plants.
- Division Angiospermae, or Magnoliophyta - Angiosperms, or Flowering Plants.
- Class Dicotyledones - dicotyledons.
- Order Scrophulariales - Scrophulariaceae.
- Family Solanaceae - Solanaceae.
- Genus Solanum - Nightshade.
- Species Solanum nigrum - Black nightshade. The specific name must be accompanied by the surname of the author, who first gave a scientific description of the species and introduced its name into scientific use: Solanum nigrum L. (L. is an abbreviation of Linnaeus' surname - Linnaeus).
According to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, there are rules for the formation of names for taxa of various ranks, which makes it possible to immediately distinguish their level. Thus, numerous names of departments have the ending -phyta. For example, the department Flowering plants is called Magnoliophyta, the department Green algae is called Chlorophyta, etc. The name of the orders ends in -ales. For example, the order Ranunculaceae - Ranales, the order Graminaceae - Poales, etc. The name of the families ends in -ceae. For example, the Rosaceae family, the Legume family - Fabaceae, etc.
General characteristics of the taxonomy of plants and animals
The organic world is complex and diverse. In order to understand it and navigate it, man created various systems of the organic world. At first, the systems were artificial, since they were built on random characteristics that did not take into account the deep relationship of organisms. And only after the discovery of evolutionary theory and the identification of deep kinship between different, including organisms distant from each other, did it become possible to create a natural system of the organic world.
This is a very complex matter, and the natural system has not yet been fully formed, since there is not yet enough information about certain organisms, but the foundations of such a system have been developed, and the place of this or that species in this system is being clarified. Let us consider in general terms the basic structure of the system of the organic world, created by the works of a large number of biologists:
The entire organic world, based on the principle of the presence of cells in the body, is divided into two empires - the Non-Cellular and Cellular empires. The Non-Cellular Empire is formed by one super-kingdom, which in turn consists of one kingdom - Viruses. The Cellular Empire, based on the presence of a nucleus in the cells, is divided into two superkingdoms - Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are formed by the kingdom Prokaryotes, which consists of two divisions - the Bacteria department and the Blue-green algae department. Eukaryotes are formed by three kingdoms - Plants, Animals, Fungi.
The system of the organic world is formed by taxonomic units, or taxa. Taxon (systematic unit) is a group of organisms united by certain characteristics. There are taxa of several levels. Currently, the highest taxon is considered to be the Empire of Organisms, and the elementary taxon is the species. The science of identifying and classifying organisms according to their evolutionary relationships is called taxonomy.
You need to know the following taxa of animals and plants.
1. Taxa of the kingdom Animalia (in descending order):
kingdom → phylum → class → order → family → genus → species
(some taxa are omitted, for example subphylum, suborder, subfamily, etc.).
2. Taxa of the Plant kingdom (in descending order):
kingdom → division → class → order → family → genus → species
(some taxa are omitted, for example subdivision, subclass, sub-order, etc.).
It is important to remember that organisms have a generic and species name (characterized by binary nomenclature), for example, dandelion officinalis (dandelion is a generic name; medicinal is a species name), grass frog, common toad, etc. In science, double Latin names are used, which makes taxonomy (taxonomy) of plants, animals, fungi by international science.
Classification of organisms according to their ecological role, based on feeding methods
You know that according to the type of nutrition, organisms are divided into autotrophs and heterotrophs. Depending on their ecological role, these organisms are divided into several groups. Let's consider this classification.
1. Producers- autotrophs, which synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds, which are food for all other organisms.
The ecological role of producers is that they constitute the beginning of all food chains and carry out the conversion of inorganic substances into organic ones in the cycle of substances. Producers include all plant organisms (algae, angiosperms, gymnosperms, etc.), as well as chemosynthetics (for example, sulfur bacteria).
2. Consumers- organisms that assimilate organic substances and partially convert them into inorganic, and partially into organic compounds of a new type. Consumers “transfer” organic substances from one link to another.
Consumers are divided into several groups according to the order of their occurrence in the food chain.
- 1st order consumers are herbivorous animals - phytophages (hare, sheep, etc.); they convert organic substances of plant origin into organic substances of animal origin and convert some organic substances into inorganic substances through dissimilation processes.
- 2nd order consumers are carnivores that feed on other animals, in particular herbivores. There are consumers of higher orders.
3. Decomposers- heterotrophic organisms, the main ecological function of which is the transformation of organic substances into inorganic ones.
Decomposers include putrefactive bacteria, fungi (saprophytes), earthworms, etc. A special role among decomposers is occupied by detritivores - organisms that feed on detritus.
Decomposers complete food chains; due to their activity, the cycle in the cycle of substances in nature is closed - inorganic substances formed from organic substances re-enter the cycle, being the basis of the mineral nutrition of producers.
It should be noted that decomposers not only convert organic substances into inorganic ones - part of the organic substances they consume is used for the synthesis of organic substances that form the body of decomposers, but as a result of the activity of decomposers, the process of converting organics into inorganics prevails. A similar remark can be made regarding the activities of producers: producers convert part of the organic substances they synthesize into inorganic ones (in dissimilation processes), but as a result of the activity of these organisms, organic substances are synthesized from inorganic substances (this process predominates).
Consequently, the above-mentioned organisms in natural communities form food chains in which the transfer of substances and energy is realized and through which the circulation of substances in nature occurs.
Food chains are diverse, they involve a large number of different organisms, and individual food chains intersect, which leads to the emergence of food webs. The large number of participants in food chains and networks contributes to their sustainability in nature, since the disappearance of one link in the chain is easily replaced by another link in the chain.
Examples of simple food chains are:
- Herbaceous plants growing in a reservoir (producers) → Herbivorous insects - beetles, dragonflies (1st order consumers) → Amphibians feeding on insects (common frog, etc. - 2nd order consumers) → Aquatic reptiles (for example, the common grass snake - consumer of the 3rd order) → Birds of prey that feed on snakes (consumer of the 4th order) Putrefactive bacteria that decompose the corpses of dead birds of prey (decomposers).
- Cereal plants → Birds that feed on cereals → Humans Putrefactive bacteria that destroy human corpses.
- Cereals (wheat) Grasshoppers → Shrew Ferret → Birds of prey that feed on ferrets → Putrefactive bacteria that destroy the corpses of birds of prey.
The main feature of a food web, which distinguishes it from food chains, is the presence in the first of several interconnected food chains. Food networks arise in the process of evolution in natural communities of organisms (biogeocenoses) and are the basis for the stability of a given biogeocenosis in natural conditions. With small changes in external conditions, the food web allows the preservation of a given community for a long time. However, a sharp change in conditions can lead to the death of a given biogeocenosis, which is important to take into account when human economic activity impacts a particular region.
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Topic: Diversity of the organic world. Classification of organisms. Objectives: To characterize the modern classification of living organisms. Consider the characteristic features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Chapter XIII. Development of life on Earth Pimenov A.V. Take home: preparation for the testSlide 2
We have already met the artificial system of K. Linnaeus, who divided all plants into 24 classes, and animals into 6 classes. Linnaeus was a metaphysician and believed that species are immutable. In his classification, the highest taxonomic unit was a class, which united orders; orders consisted of genera; genera united species similar in certain characteristics. In addition, C. Linnaeus firmly established the use of binary nomenclature in science. Latin names ensured mutual understanding between scientists from different countries. Classification by K. Linnaeus The first attempts to classify living organisms did not reflect the relationships between different species; artificial systems were created that were based on a small number of specific characteristics.
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The theories of J.B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin led to the development of the historical approach in biology, including taxonomy. They began to unite into one systematic category on the basis of unity of origin, the classification became natural, that is, reflecting evolution and family ties. Modern taxonomy is based not only on external similarity, but also on data from molecular biology (the study of DNA, proteins), comparative anatomy, physiology, embryology, paleontology, and geographic distribution. Natural classification
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Empire? Overkingdom? Kingdom? Sub-kingdom? Type? Class? Squad? Family? Genus? View? Modern systematic categories
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Bacteriophages Viruses are capable of infecting most existing living organisms, causing various diseases. Human viral diseases include: HIV, influenza, smallpox, and rabies.
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Artificial classification is characterized by…. Natural classification reflects…. Viruses belong to the empire..., kingdom.... Viruses are characterized by... Viruses cause diseases... Bacteriophages are viruses whose name translates as.... So:
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Prokaryotes include organisms that have a cellular structure but do not have a nucleus. The bacterial cell is enclosed in a dense, rigid cell wall. The main component of the bacterial cell wall is the polysaccharide murein. Overkingdom of Prokaryotes
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Bacteria participate in the cycle of substances in nature; many bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen; thanks to these bacteria, the soil is enriched with nitrogen and plant productivity increases.
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In higher plants, various tissues and organs appear, higher spore-bearing plants (bryophytes and pteridophytes) reproduce by spores, and in the sexual generation, motile gametes equipped with flagella are formed.
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Higher seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) do not need water for reproduction; seeds are formed after pollination and fertilization. Gametes (as a rule) do not have flagella. The cell wall contains cellulose and the reserve nutrient is starch.
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The Animal Kingdom unites organisms with a heterotrophic type of nutrition, mobile, with limited growth. It is divided into the subkingdoms Unicellular and Multicellular animals. Active movement led to the appearance of a nervous system and sensory organs in most multicellular animals.
