8.4.1 Elementary optocoupler - photonic coupled pair
An optocoupler is an active element that combines a light source and a photodetector matched with it, in which an external electrical signal is converted into an optical one, amplified, then converted back into an electrical one, or vice versa, but the gain must be greater than unity.
The main advantage is the ability to separate the input and output circuits, i.e. galvanic or optical isolation takes place.
Optocouplers are divided into two types:
a) optocoupler with external photonic coupling and internal electrical coupling.
In Figure 8.14, FP is a photodetector, U is an amplifier of electrical signals, IS is a light source.
Output brightness V EXIT changes proportionally to the input VX. The optical signal is converted into an electrical signal, then amplified by an electronic amplifier and converted back into an optical signal.
If IN OUT > IN IN with the same spectral composition, then there is a homochromatic amplification of radiation; if IN OUT > IN IN and different spectra, there is a heterochromatic amplification or conversion of radiation. It is possible to convert one wavelength to another. With optical FP and IC, light is amplified.
The main characteristic of the optocoupler - transfer - V OUT = f (V IN) is shown in Figure 8.15. The working section is the linear part of the characteristic; at high and low brightness values, nonlinearity appears.
Optocoupler is the basis of optoelectronic amplifiers and image converters. The image at the input of a matrix consisting of a large number of optocouplers will be amplified or converted at the output (for example, invisible to visible);
B) optocoupler with internal photonic coupling (Figure 8.16).
Here IS is the light source, C is the light guide, and FP is the photodetector. All this is placed in a sealed, light-proof housing. The electrical signal is converted to optical, amplified, and converted back to electrical.
Optocouplers are used for converting, amplifying, generating, shaping an electrical signal, etc.
If an optocoupler has one emitter and one receiver, it is called an optocoupler or elementary optocoupler.
A microcircuit consisting of several optocouplers with additional matching and amplifying devices is called an optoelectronic integrated circuit.
The advantages of optocouplers are:
a) electrical isolation of the receiver and emitter;
b) wide frequency band (0...10 14 Hz);
c) increased noise immunity from external electromagnetic fields;
d) the possibility of combining with other semiconductor devices.
Disadvantages include:
a) high power consumption;
b) low temperature stability and radiation resistance;
c) aging and changes in parameters;
d) high level of intrinsic noise.
8.4.2 Types of optocouplers
Mainly as a light source in
optocouplers use injection LEDs. The emission spectrum depends on the material of manufacture and differs by the type of photodetector:
a) resistor optocoupler (Figure 8.17a), in which the light source is an LED, the photodetector is a photoresistor made of cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide or lead;
b) diode optocoupler (Figure 8.17b) is a combination of an LED (GaAs) with a photodiode (Si);
c) photovaricap optocoupler (Figure 8.17c);
d) transistor optocoupler – gallium arsenide LED with a silicon phototransistor (Figure 8.17d);
e) an optocoupler with a composite transistor, it has higher sensitivity, but low performance (Figure 8.17, e);
f) transistor optocoupler with a diode (Figure 8.17, f), the performance is higher than that of the previous optocoupler;
g) optocoupler with a unijunction transistor (Figure 8.17h).
A unijunction phototransistor can be used:
1) as a photoresistor when only the bases are turned on;
2) as a photodiode when only the emitter junction is turned on;
3) as a unijunction transistor when all three electrodes are turned on;
i) an optocoupler with a field-effect transistor has good linear output characteristics and is convenient for use in analog circuits;
j) thyristor optocoupler. It differs from photoresistor and photodiode optocouplers in its high load capacity at increased operating voltages.
Optoelectronic integrated circuits (OE ICs) have optical communication between individual components. These microcircuits based on diode, transistor and thyristor optocouplers, in addition to light sources and photodetectors, contain devices for processing signals from the photodetector. The peculiarity of the OE IC is unidirectional signal transmission and the absence of feedback. The technology of optoelectronic devices is promising and constantly evolving.
List of used literature
1. Stepanenko I.P. Fundamentals of microelectronics: Textbook for universities. – M.: Laboratory of Basic Knowledge, 2000. – 488 p.
2. Pasynkov V.P., Chirkin L.K. Semiconductor devices: Textbook for universities. 5th edition. – St. Petersburg: Lan, 2006. – 479 p.
3. Shustov M.A. Practical circuit design. Semiconductor devices and their applications - Vol. 5. - M.: Altex, 2004. - 304 p.
4. Tugov N.M., Glebov B.A., Charykov N.A. Semiconductor devices: Textbook for universities. – M.: Energoatomizdat, 1990. – 576 p.
5. Bulychev A.L., Lyamin P.M., Tulinov V.T. Electronic devices: Textbook for universities. – M.: Light Ltd., 2000. – 416 p.
6. Berikov A.B., Ordabaev B.O. Semiconductor devices. – Almaty: AEI, 1992. – 136 p.
7. Lachin V.I., Savelyev N.S. Electronics: Textbook. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2000. – 448 p.
8. Gusev V.G., Gusev M.Yu. Electronics. – M.: Higher School, 1991. – 495 p.
9. Valenko V.S. Semiconductor devices and basic circuit design of electronic devices. – St. Petersburg: Lan, 2001. – 470 p.
10. Zherebtsov I.P. Basics of Electronics. – L.: Energoatomizdat. Leningrad department, 1989. – 352 p.
11. Nosov Yu.R., Sidorov A.S. Optocouplers and their applications. – M.: Radio and Communications, 1991. – 280 p.
Tamara Marupovna Zholsharaeva
Microelectronics. Semiconductor devices
Tutorial
Editor Zh.M. Syzdykova
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ALMATY INSTITUTE OF ENERGY AND COMMUNICATIONS
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Serikov E.A
A significant drawback of a technically complex product is a good reason to legally and fully return money to the buyer. Paragraph 1 of article number 20 of the current code of laws for the protection of consumer rights states that a significant drawback is the inability to use the purchased technical device or device for its intended purpose. At the same time, it is impossible to fix the problem yourself without additional time and financial resources.
Distinctive features of technically complex products
The category of technically complex products includes various devices, the operation of which is based on the consumption of certain energy resources, and their user functionality is implemented at a complex technical level.
The packaging of such products requires the presence of detailed instructions for use (in several languages). According to current legislation, the list of technically complex goods includes the following equipment:
- air conditioners, washing machines and dishwashers;
- refrigerators, coffee machines, electric stoves;
- digital photo and video cameras, lenses;
- modern gaming consoles with wireless control;
- GPS navigators equipped with a touch screen;
- yachts, boats, snowmobiles and other vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines;
- drones and radio-controlled cars.
Significant deficiencies include defects that appear after repair work has been carried out and require certain financial investments to correct them.
How to determine the presence of a significant deficiency
According to current legislation, a significant defect of a product is recognized if it has been subject to repeated breakdowns or, shortly after purchase, the main and most expensive element of the device has failed.
Such situations include a breakdown of the motherboard on a laptop or the compressor of a household climate control system. If we are talking about a damaged handle of a recently purchased refrigerator, then such a defect is not considered significant and is not subject to any compensation from the seller.
Article 18 (clause 5) of the Federal Law on the Protection of Consumer Rights states that all financial costs associated with conducting an examination to identify a significant defect fall on the shoulders of the seller of the product. If the defect has been proven, the buyer has the right to demand from the seller:
- refund in full;
- free repairs;
- a significant discount equivalent to the identified defect.
The seller can replace the defective product to the buyer with a new copy of a similar brand or offer him a cheaper or more expensive option, taking into account the recalculation of the cost.
What actions should the consumer take?
In the case of purchasing a technically complex product that has a significant drawback, the consumer has more grounds for returning the money paid than when purchasing products of other categories. It is important to identify all shortcomings during the two-week period of purchasing the product.
If this deadline is missed, the buyer himself will have to eliminate the defects. The dialogue with the seller must be recorded in writing. It is necessary to draw up a document containing a well-formulated claim and a list of requirements from the buyer.
The text should include the following information:
- Applicant's passport details.
- Information about the product and the detected damage.
- Date of purchase and exact time of filing the claim.
- List of requirements from the buyer.
When transferring a technically complex product with a discovered significant defect from the buyer to the seller, the equipment must be sealed in the presence of the dissatisfied party.
Such a step is necessary in order to prevent unauthorized access to the internal parts of the product and simulating a breakdown, shifting responsibility onto the shoulders of the consumer. After completing the sealing procedure for the goods, a return document is signed, which provides comprehensive information regarding the current condition of the equipment.
Video about returning a technically complex product
If the seller decides to refuse in response to a correctly submitted claim, he must explain his refusal in writing. If the explanations contradict current legislation, the buyer must insist on an independent examination.
The owner of the goods is allowed to be present during the actions of the expert commission. If the buyer does not agree with the final conclusion made by the experts, he can appeal this decision in court. At the same time, you can turn to representatives of the Consumer Rights Protection Committee for help.
A defect in a product is a non-compliance of a product (work, service) with either the mandatory requirements provided for by law or in the manner established by it, or the terms of the contract (in their absence or incomplete conditions with the usually presented requirements), or the purposes for which the product (work, service) of this kind usually used, or for the purposes of which the seller (performer) was informed by the consumer when concluding the contract, or by sample and (or) description when selling goods according to the sample and (or) description.
Based on “clause 1 of Article 20” of the Law on the Protection of Consumer Rights, a significant defect in a product (work, service), the occurrence of which entails the legal consequences provided for in “Articles 18” and “29” of the Law, should be understood:
A) fatal defect of goods(works, services) - lack, which cannot be eliminated by taking measures to eliminate it in order to bring a product (work, service) into compliance with the mandatory requirements provided for by law or in the manner established by it, or the terms of the contract (in their absence or incomplete conditions - usually the requirements), leading to the impossibility or inadmissibility of using this product (work, service) services) for the purposes for which a product (work, service) of this kind is usually used, or for the purposes of which the seller (performer) was informed by the consumer when concluding the contract, or with a sample and (or) description when selling goods based on the sample and (or) according to the description;
B) shortage of goods(works, services), which cannot be eliminated without disproportionate costs, - a defect, the costs of eliminating which are close to the cost or exceed the cost of the product (work, service) itself or the benefit that could be received by the consumer from its use.
In relation to a technically complex product, the disproportionate cost of eliminating the defects of the product is determined by the court based on the characteristics of the product, the price of the product or its other properties;
V) shortage of goods(works, services), which cannot be eliminated without a disproportionate amount of time, - a defect, the elimination of which takes time exceeding the period established by agreement of the parties in writing and limited to forty-five days for eliminating the defect of the product, and if such a period is not determined by agreement of the parties - time exceeding the minimum period objectively necessary to eliminate this defect usually the method used;
G) shortage of goods(works, services), repeatedly identified, - various shortcomings of the entire product, identified more than once, each of which individually makes the product (work, service) not comply with the mandatory requirements provided for by law or in the manner established by it, or the terms of the contract (in their absence or incomplete conditions - usually imposed requirements) and leads to the impossibility or inadmissibility of using this product (work, service) for the purposes for which a product (work, service) of this kind is usually used, or for the purposes of which the seller (performer) was informed by the consumer when concluding the contract , or sample and (or) description when selling goods according to the sample and (or) description;
d) a deficiency that reappears after it has been eliminated, - a product defect that reappears after measures have been taken to eliminate it.
In relation to a technically complex product, as a defect in the product under “clause 1 of Article 18” of the Law on the Protection of Consumer Rights, one should understand various defects of the product, the elimination of which together takes time, leading to the impossibility of using the product (work, service) for more than thirty days in during each year of the warranty period.
Product defects mean
Non-compliance with mandatory requirements. As a rule, this is a manufacturing defect (damage, defect, breakdown) resulting from non-compliance of the product (work, service) with GOST/technical regulations, law, or other mandatory requirements. Typically, such shortcomings appear during operation. For example, a cell phone has stopped working or started freezing, or the dye in your shoes or clothing has become unstable. If we talk about the result of the work, then this could be, for example, swelling of the tabletop in manufactured furniture, etc.
Does not match the sample(description). For example, when concluding a contract for the purchase and sale of furniture based on a sample, you are offered a choice of samples of the material from which the furniture will be made. These could be fabric samples, wood colors, etc. The name of the sample you choose is included in the contract. Failure to comply with the sample you have chosen will constitute a sale of a product of inadequate quality (even if the product itself is made without defects).
Non-compliance with the contract. The case is similar to the previous one, only in addition to non-compliance with the sample, the product may not correspond to the article, specification, quantity and many other criteria that are specified in the contract. Speaking about a service (using a tourist service as an example), an example could be a discrepancy between the actual star rating of the hotel and that indicated in the contract.
Inconsistency with goals, about which the seller was informed by the buyer. For example, it is obvious that a rain umbrella, according to its intended purpose, should not allow water to pass through. But there are also special cases when we ourselves ask the seller (performer) to sell a product (perform work) that meets our goals.
The seller is informed of specific goals, as a rule, verbally, in the process of selecting a product. For example, you need to purchase a hacksaw for metal, and the seller offers you one for wood or concrete, saying that it will also work. During use, such a hacksaw, of course, may become unsuitable for use. However, even despite the fact that you violated the operating instructions and used the hacksaw for other purposes, it is considered that you were sold a product of inadequate quality, as not corresponding to the purposes of which you notified the seller. However, difficulties may arise here due to the fact that the goals themselves are not recorded anywhere, that is, there is no evidence that you informed the seller about specific goals.
Mechanical damage. If we talk about the classification of this defect, then it will be its non-compliance with the contract or mandatory requirements. But, since, when talking about mechanical damage, we are treading on thin ice, we need to be more careful and attentive here. When you make a purchase or accept the result of work, you are often given the opportunity to sign an acceptance certificate for the goods (or a certificate of completion of work). In most cases, the product itself is in the packaging, and gullible consumers do not open it. However, without opening the packaging and checking the product, you deprive yourself of the right to demand a refund or replacement of the product if you find mechanical damage on it. Indeed, as a general rule, the risk of accidental loss and damage to the goods passes to the consumer from the moment of payment for the goods and its acceptance (Article 459 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). And if the result of the work is accepted, the consumer-customer is obliged to inspect the result and, if there are no shortcomings, indicate them in the act, otherwise he will subsequently be deprived of the right to refer to them (Article 720 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Thus, mechanical damage can occur both as a result of manufacturing defects and as a result of improper transportation/handling prior to the transfer of the goods to the consumer. Therefore, be sure to carefully inspect the goods before signing the acceptance certificate!
1. The totality of... is considered as the productive forces of society...
○ technology and production organization
○ means of production and scientific and technological progress
○ labor and means of production
○ means of labor and objects of labor
2. The entire set of produced labor products breaks down into...
○ means of production and consumer goods
○ objects of labor and means of labor
3. The means of production include...
○ labor and labor items
○ labor and means of labor
○ objects of labor and means of labor
○ objects of labor and products of labor
4. The process of determining the share according to which each economic entity takes part in the produced product is called...
○ distribution
○ exchange
○ production
○ consumption
5. The final phase (stage) of social production is...
○ production
○ consumption
○ distribution
○ exchange
6. The process of determining the amount of income of a participant in economic activity is called...
○ distribution
○ receiving wages
○ accounting of citizens’ income by tax authorities
○ payroll
7. In subsistence farming, the production process diagram looks like this: ...
○ production – distribution – exchange – consumption
○ production – distribution – exchange
○ consumption – distribution – production
○ production – distribution – consumption
8. The main features of traditional economics include...
○ private ownership of economic resources
○ direct management of all enterprises from a single center
○ market mechanism for regulating the economy without government intervention
○ widespread use of manual labor
9. In a market economy, the answer to the question of what goods and services should be produced is ultimately determined by...
○ foreign investors;
○ manufacturers;
○ consumers;
○ government bodies
10. The predominance of individual private property is considered a distinctive feature of the __________ economic system.
○ purely market
○ mixed
○ traditional
○ planned
11. __________ caused the inevitability of a shortage of goods and services in an administrative-command economy.
○ high inflation rates
○ unemployment
○ prices that do not take into account the relationship between supply and demand
○ competition between producers
12. The subject of microeconomics includes...
□ supply and demand on the milk market
□ sugar production and its price dynamics
□ economy-wide production
13. The subject of microeconomics does not include...
□ sugar production and its price dynamics
□ employment of the population in the national economy
□ supply and demand on the milk market
□ economy-wide production
14. Microeconomic statements include...
□ state budget revenues this year will amount to 6.96 trillion. rub.
□ economic growth has been observed in Russia since 2000
□ the company increased export supplies
□ the poor potato harvest led to an increase in prices
15. In a market economy, the main operating economic entities are...
○ enterprises, exchanges, financial and industrial groups
○ firms, government, households
○ households, employees, entrepreneurs
○ households, banks, investment funds
16. Paper money differs from credit money in that they...
○ cannot be exported outside the country
○ are cash
○ intended for payment for inexpensive goods
○ have forced purchasing power
17. If we purchase goods on credit, then money acts as a means...
○ consumption
○ savings
○ payment
○ appeals
18. If nominal wages increased 1.2 times, price growth in the economy over the same period amounted to 5%, then real wages...
○ increased by 25%
○ decreased by 15%
○ increased by 15%
○ decreased by 25%
19. The employee’s salary in January was 7,000 rubles, and in March 8,400; inflation for the period was 12%. In one quarter it became really...
4% poorer
6% richer
8% richer
8% poorer
20. Fixed capital includes...
○ machines and mechanisms
○ raw materials and materials
○ money
○ depreciation
21. An example of a pure oligopoly producing a standardized product is the market...
○ grains
○ household appliances
○ crude oil
○ confectionery
22. A distinctive feature of oligopoly is...
○ a large number of competing firms with a homogeneous product
○ extremely limited entry into the industry by various barriers
○ a large number of competing firms with differentiated products
○ free flow of new capital into the industry
23. Monopsony in the labor market is a situation when...
○ the only seller of labor is opposed by the only buyer
○ many sellers of labor are opposed by many buyers of labor
○ the only seller of labor is opposed by many buyers
○ many sellers of labor are opposed by a single buyer
24. Unfair competition does not include...
○ use of someone else's trademark
○ organization of exhibitions
○ poaching specialists
○ technical espionage
25. An increase in interest rates leads to...
○ growth in the supply of borrowed funds
○ growth in demand for borrowed funds
○ reducing the supply of borrowed funds
○ growth in the number of borrowers
27. Absolute rent is received by the owners...
○ the best plots of land
○ plots of land with average fertility
○ worst plots of land
○ all plots regardless of fertility
28. Rent paid from all plots without exception for the right to conduct farming on them is called...
○ economic rent
○ monopoly rent
○ absolute land rent
○ differential rent I
29. The demand for land for agricultural production will be...
grow with increasing demand for food
decrease with increasing demand for food
grow when demand for food decreases
decrease with constant demand for food
30. The realization of the interests of market subjects and the combination of the interests of the seller and buyer is ensured by the __________ function of the market
○ intermediary
○ sanitizing
○ stimulating
○ informational
31. The idea that the market is a self-regulating system that independently comes to an equilibrium state without government intervention belongs to...
○ Francois Quesnay
○ Milton Friedman
○ Adam Smith
○ John M. Keynes
32. Differentiation of commodity producers and liquidation of unprofitable enterprises is carried out using the __________ function of the market.
○ sanitizing
○ regulatory
○ stimulating
○ controlling
33. Market advantages do not include...
○ high degree of flexibility and adaptation to changing production conditions
○ lack of a mechanism for protecting the environment from production and other activities
○ freedom of choice for entrepreneurs and consumers
○ relative restoration of disturbed balance
34. Market imperfections (failures) can be mitigated...
○ by the state
○ households
○ monopolies
○ entrepreneurs
35. The policy of inflating prices for finished goods and services and understating prices for raw materials is...
○ free trade
○ price scissors
○ dumping
○ protectionism
36. When changing the system of taxation of personal income from proportional to progressive, the differentiation of income of the population is illustrated...
○ by approaching the Lorentz curve to the line of absolute inequality
37. When changing the system of taxation of personal income from progressive to proportional differentiation of income of the population is illustrated...
○ moving a point along the Phillips curve to the left
○ by removing the Lorentz curve from the line of absolute equality
○ by approaching the Lorentz curve to the line of absolute equality
○ moving a point along the Phillips curve to the right
38. Improvements in income inequality are characterized by...
○ increasing the value of the Lerner coefficient
○ decreasing the value of the Gini coefficient
○ increasing the value of the Gini coefficient
○ decreasing the value of the Lerner coefficient
39. The introduction of a corrective tax on a product, the production of which is associated with a negative external effect, will cause...
○ increasing the volume of market supply of the product
○ reduction in the volume of market supply of a product
○ overproduction of this product
○ withdrawal from the market of companies producing this product
40. Externalities arise because...
○ enterprises take into account fixed costs that are not included in the marginal
○ the quality of goods does not meet consumer requirements
○ market prices do not reflect the costs and benefits of third parties
○ the state pays subsidies to producers
41. Costs or benefits not reflected in market prices and received by third parties are...
○ shadow income
○ opportunity costs
○ side (external) effects
○ implicit costs
42. Does not apply to pure public goods...
○ lawmaking
○ national defense
○ second higher education
○ primary education
43. If the economy operates under conditions of full employment of resources, then a reduction in individual taxes will lead to the fact that (other things being equal) the equilibrium price level...
○ will not change, equilibrium real GDP will decrease
○ will not change, equilibrium real GDP will increase
○ will increase, equilibrium real GDP will not change
○ will decrease, equilibrium real GDP will not change
44. Suppose that national production includes two goods - consumer goods X and investment goods Y. In the current year, 200 units of good X were produced at a price of 2 den. units and 10 units of product Y at a price of 4 den. units, then the gross domestic product (GDP) is equal to _____ den. units
○ 440
○ 1260
○ 2000
○ 820
45. With a reduction in government spending by 50 billion. units, an increase in consumer spending by 100 billion den. units, investment expenses for 150 billion den. units and net exports by 10 billion. units GDP volume __________ billion den. units
○ will increase by 210
○ will be reduced by 210
○ will increase by 190
○ will be reduced by 190
46. The country produces 2 goods: bricks and telephones. This year, 200 thousand bricks were produced. and sold for 5 thousand rubles. for 1 thousand pieces, phones 2 thousand pieces. at a price of 2.5 thousand rubles. for 1 piece Last year, 210 thousand bricks were produced. and sold at a price of 4.6 thousand rubles. for 1 thousand units, phones 1.8 thousand units. at a price of 2.7 thousand rubles. for 1 piece Nominal GDP amounted to __________ thousand rubles.
○ 5826
○ 5550
○ 7240
○ 6000
47. Natural rate of unemployment...
○ means the presence of only structural and frictional unemployment
○ includes seasonal and cyclical unemployment
○ means complete absence of unemployed
○ includes cyclical unemployment
48. One way to reduce the “natural” rate of unemployment would be...
○ increase in unemployment benefits
○ increasing the minimum wage
○ increasing information about available jobs
○ carrying out expansionary monetary policy
49. The emergence of frictional unemployment is associated with...
○ insufficient qualifications of the unemployed
○ time required to find a new job
○ high real wages
○ fall in aggregate demand
50. The cost of the consumer basket increased from 5,700 rubles. up to 6500 rub. The inflation rate was...
○ 15%
○ 20%
○ 14%
○ 30%
51. The inflation rate in the country last year was 5.6%, and this year it is 8.7%. The inflation rate for two years was...
○ 13,4%
○ 16%
○ 14,78%
○ 14,4%
52. In the depression phase, cyclical unemployment...
○ can be both positive and negative
○ absent
○ reaches maximum value
○ is a negative quantity
53. The potential volume of output in the economy is achieved when...
○ frictional unemployment
○ cyclical unemployment
○ technological unemployment
○ natural rate of unemployment
54. The phase of the economic crisis accompanied by stagflation corresponds to...
○ reduction in unemployment benefits payments
○ stock price growth
○ drop in interest rate
○ increase in price level
55. The frequency of crises, according to Zhuglar, is connected...
○ with shock changes in production technology
○ with renewal of fixed capital
○ with government actions in the field of monetary policy
○ with the emergence of new markets
56. It is not typical for an intensive type of economic growth...
○ use of new means of production
○ application of new technologies in production
○ increasing the level of personnel qualifications
○ increase in used material resources
57. If the expansion of production capacity occurs on the same technical basis, then there is...
○ intensive economic growth
○ extensive economic growth
○ mixed economic growth
○ real economic growth
58. The source of the extensive path of economic development is not...
○ discovery and implementation of new progressive technologies
○ discovery of new mineral deposits
○ labor force growth
○ development of new lands
59. Economic growth is extensive if...
○ wages of hired workers increase
○ an increase in the production of goods and services occurs due to the attraction of additional factors of production
○ increase in the production of goods and services associated with the use of scientific and technological progress
○ labor productivity growth outpaces employment growth
60. The most significant reason for economic growth in developed countries is ...
○ technological changes in production
○ change in workforce qualifications
○ increase in the amount of capital used
○ increasing the amount of working time
61. Financial investments are...
○ investments that provide an increase in means of production, material assets, inventories
○ investments that involve the replacement of fixed capital worn out over the entire service life
○ volume of investments minus the cost of depreciation of fixed capital elements
○ investments in shares, bonds, bills and other securities, as well as financial instruments
62. The difference between gross and net private domestic investment is the cost...
○ for the purchase of consumer goods
○ to reimburse the cost of consumed fixed capital (depreciation)
○ to improve the level of qualifications of employees
○ for the increase in means of production
63. The source of investment cannot be...
○ tax credit
○ enterprise profits
○ depreciation fund of the enterprise
○ bank loan
64. Investments that provide complete control over the objects of investment are called...
○ fictitious
○ straight
○ portfolio
○ clean
65. An entrepreneur received income in the amount of 25 thousand rubles. After paying income tax equal to 13%, he will have at his disposal an amount equal to...
○ 21.75 thousand rub.
○ 13.25 thousand rub.
○ 23 thousand rub.
○ 20 thousand rub.
66. If a higher percentage is levied on higher incomes than on lower ones, there is a tax...
○ regressive
○ with a fixed rate
○ proportional
○ progressive
67. The total government budget deficit reduced by the amount of interest payments on the government debt represents a __________ deficit
○ structural
○ primary
○ actual
○ cyclic
68. If the tax rate in the country is 32%, the total amount of taxes collected in the state is 720 billion. units, then GDP is equal to __________ billion. units
○ 230,4
○ 950,4
○ 2250
○ 1860
69. Taxes are not divided into...
○ direct and indirect
○ state and local
○ general and special (target)
○ primary and secondary
70. Overcoming a cyclical economic downturn by increasing government spending, cutting taxes, or a combination of these measures is called...
○ fiscal expansion
○ fiscal restriction
○ investment policy
○ monetary policy
71. Automatic fiscal policy is carried out on the basis of...
○ bank rates
○ changes in transfer payments
○ deliberate manipulation of expenses
○ built-in stabilizers
72. Fiscal policy is represented in two forms - ...
○ restraining and expansion
○ soft and hard
○ expansionist and recessive
○ automatic and discretionary
73. Passive operations include...
○ operations for crediting and debiting money from the client’s account
○ transactions with bills
○ loan operations
○ deposit operations
74. If the reserve ratio is 40%, then each monetary unit entering the banking system will increase by...
○ 5 times
○ 4 times
○ 10 times
○ 2.5 times
75. The minimum rate of required reserves is established...
○ commercial bank
○ Government
○ independent commission
○ Central Bank
76. Passive operations of banks include...
○ accepting deposits
○ issuing loans
○ issuing loans
○ leasing operations
77. The functions of commercial banks do not include...
○ maintaining current accounts
○ accumulation of deposits
○ provision of loans
○ redemption of government securities
78. The policy of expensive money leads...
○ to expand the money supply
○ to the development of inflationary processes
○ to reduce the money supply
○ to the constancy of the money supply
79. Monometallism is called...
○ type of monetary system in which the role of money is legally assigned to gold and silver
○ type of monetary reform
○ a monetary system in which the weight content of the metal of the national currency is not regulated
○ type of monetary system in which one metal serves as a universal equivalent and the basis of monetary circulation
80. The most liquid monetary aggregate is...
○ M1
○ M3
○ M2
○ M0
81. Free and equal distribution among citizens of rights to acquire state-owned enterprises is the basis ...
○ German privatization model
○ Chinese privatization model
○ concept of the voucher privatization model
○ the concept of the shareholder model of privatization
82. If the amount of disposable income decreases, then, other things being equal:
○ consumer spending decreases and savings increases
○ consumer spending increases and savings decreases
○ both consumer spending and savings are reduced
○ both consumer spending and savings are growing
83. If the interest rate on loans increases, then...
○ demand for borrowed funds from the population and business is decreasing
○ enterprises are expanding investment activities
○ the population’s debt on loans already taken is decreasing
○ household savings are growing
84. Microeconomics studies:
○ economic growth
○ inflation
○ activities of a separate company
○ opportunity costs
85. The total volume of industrial output, expressed in physical units, is called...
○ marginal product
○ average product
○ intermediate product
○ common product
86. Economic profit is equal to the difference...
○ between gross income and total costs
○ between accounting and normal profit
○ between gross income and external costs
○ between external and internal costs
87. Absolute liquidity has...
○ real estate
○ time deposits
○ securities
○ cash
88. Off-budget social funds do not include:
○ state crime fighting fund
○ compulsory health insurance
○ state employment fund
○ pension
89. An increase in investment expenses, other things being equal, can lead to...
○ increase in tax rates
○ reducing inflation in the short term
○ growth in national production volumes
○ reduction in national production volumes
90. If the inflation rate for the years was 20% and 10%, then the inflation rate for two years will be...
○ 30%
○ 200%
○ 132%
○ 32%
91. A line showing different combinations of two products that can be purchased with a fixed amount of money income at a given price level is called a curve ...
○ budget restrictions
○ Laffer
○ Engel
○ indifference
92. If the nominal exchange rate is 30 rubles per 1 US dollar, and the cost of a comparable consumer basket is 2,400 rubles and 120 US dollars, then the real exchange rate is ____ rubles per 1 US dollar.
○ 40
○ 20
○ 30
○ 80
93. The general economic function of the state in a market economy is associated with the need ...
○ countercyclical regulation
○ protection of the national borders of the state
○ price planning
○ production of public goods
94. The functions of the state in a market economy include:
○ formation of inter-industry proportions
○ maintaining a competitive environment
○ countercyclical regulation
○ setting prices for private sector products
95. According to supporters of protectionist policies, the introduction of trade barriers undoubtedly leads to...
○ protection of sectors of the national economy
○ reduction in employment in sectors of the national economy
○ formation of internal monopolies
○ reduction in prices on the domestic market
