Summary: Tragic, its manifestation in art and in life. Tragic in life and in art Tragic, its manifestation in art and in life

look at abstracts similar to "Their tragic and comic manifestation in life and art"

CAPITAL HUMANITARIAN INSTITUTE

Faculty: psychological.

Specialty: psychology.

AESTHETICS

Theme: Tragic and Comic; their manifestations in life and art.

2nd year student:

Mozzherina Lilia Vladimirovna.

3. Tragic in art.

4. Tragic in life.

5. The essence of the tragic.

8. The comic as a contradiction.

10. Types and shades of comic. The measure of laughter.

11. The history of the comedic analysis of life.

12. The interaction of the comic and the tragic.

Aesthetically evaluating phenomena, a person determines the extent of his dominance over the world. This measure depends on the level and nature of the development of society, its production. The latter reveals one or another meaning for a person of the natural properties of objects, determines their aesthetic properties. This explains that the aesthetic manifests itself in different forms: the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, the base, the tragic, the comic, etc.

The expansion of human social practice entails an expansion of the range of aesthetic properties and aesthetically valued phenomena.

Let us dwell in more detail on such aesthetic forms as the tragic and the comic.

1. Tragedy is an irreparable loss and assertion of immortality.

There is no remarkable era in the history of mankind that was not full of tragic events. Man is mortal, and every person living a conscious life cannot, in one way or another, comprehend his attitude to death and immortality. Finally, great art, in its philosophical reflections on the world, always internally gravitates towards a tragic theme. Throughout the history of world art passes as one of the general themes of the tragic. In other words, both the history of society, and the history of art, and the life of an individual, in one way or another, come into contact with the problem of the tragic. All this determines its importance for aesthetics.

The 20th century is the century of the greatest social upheavals, crises, and violent changes that create the most complicated and tense situations in one or another point of the globe. Therefore, a theoretical analysis of the problem that is tragic for all of us is, in a sense, introspection and understanding of the world in which we live.

Defining the essence of P.I. Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, I.I.

Sollertinsky writes: "Tragedy - death - holiday ..." (I. I.

Sollertinsky. Selected articles about music. L. - M., 1946, p. 98.)

Before us is the aesthetic formula of the tragic, according to which not only this symphony is built, but also Mayakovsky's poem "Vladimir Ilyich Lenin".

Narrating about the death of the leader of the revolution, the poet conveys the grief of the people. And suddenly, somewhere on the highest, on the most terrible note, the poet utters seemingly blasphemous - festive words: "I am happy."

I am happy that I am a particle of this strength that even tears from my eyes are common.

(V. Mayakovsky. Selected works, vol. 2. M., 1953, p. 180).

This transition from sorrow to joy is one of the great secrets of the tragic. Even David Hume, in his treatise On Tragedy, drew attention to the fact that tragic emotion includes sorrow and joy, horror and pleasure. (D. Hume. About the tragedy. "Questions of Literature", 1967, No. 2, p.

161). To explain the nature of this phenomenon, let's look at the historical origins of the tragic in art. Different peoples have legends about dying and resurrecting gods: Dionysus (Greece), Osiris (Egypt),

Adonis (Phenicia), Attis (Asia Minor), Marduk (Babylonia). During the cult festivities in honor of these gods, grief over their death was replaced by joy and gaiety over their resurrection. These legends are based on the observation of a grain of bread that “dies” when it is thrown into the ground, and again “resurrects” in the ear. As social contradictions grew, the agricultural basis of these myths became more complicated: hopes for deliverance from earthly sufferings, for eternal life (the legend of Christ) began to be associated with the death and resurrection of the gods.

Tragic death turns into resurrection, and sorrow turns into joy; this pattern manifests itself in the art of different peoples.

Ancient Indian aesthetics expressed this pattern through the concept

"Samsara", which means the cycle of life and death, the reincarnation of a deceased person into another living being, depending on the nature of his life. The concept of metempsychosis (posthumous reincarnation of souls) among the ancient Indians was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200baesthetic improvement, ascent to the more beautiful. ("Ancient Indian philosophy". M., 1963, p. 178). The Vedas, the oldest monument of Indian literature, affirmed the beauty of the afterlife and the joy of leaving it. (PD Chantepie - de la Saussay. Illustrated history of religions, vol. 2. St. Petersburg., P. 41).

The ancient Mexicans also had the problem of the other being of the dead, however, here "the final fate is determined not by the moral behavior of people, but by the nature of death with which they leave this world." (Miguel

Leon - Portilla. Nagua philosophy. Research of sources. M., 1961, p. 226).

Since ancient times, human consciousness could not come to terms with non-existence. As soon as people began to think about death, they affirmed immortality, and “in neti,” in non-being, people gave place to evil and accompanied it there with laughter.

Paradoxically, it is not tragedy that speaks of death, but satire. Satire proves the mortality of living and even triumphant evil. And the tragedy affirms immortality, reveals the good and beautiful principles in a person, which triumph, win, despite the death of the hero.

Tragedy is a sorrowful song about irreparable loss, a joyful hymn to human immortality. It is this deep nature of the tragic that manifests itself when the feeling of sorrow is resolved by joy ("I am happy"), death - by immortality.

At the origins of the tragic, the idea of \u200b\u200bimmortality is revealed in a primitive, illusory form - in the form of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of the afterlife and the resurrection of the deceased hero. These ideas conceal a real philosophical and aesthetic problematics: earthly immortality exists.

The hero remains to live both in the results of his activity and in its continuation in the memory, deeds, and exploits of the people. This is the truth behind the resurrection myths. A tragic work reveals in a perishing personality that which finds continuation in humanity.

2. General philosophical aspects of the tragic.

A person leaves life irrevocably. Death is the transformation of the living into non-living. However, the dead remains to live in the living: culture keeps everything that has passed, it is the extragenetic memory of mankind. Each person is the whole Universe. H. Heine said that under each tombstone is the history of the whole world, which cannot disappear without a trace.

And in this finite being itself, tragedy finds immortal features that make the personality akin to the universe, the finite - to the infinite. Tragedy is a philosophical art that poses and solves the highest metaphysical problems of life and death, realizes the meaning of being, analyzes the global problems of its stability, eternity, infinity, despite its constant change.

In tragedy, as Hegel believed, death is not only destruction.

It also means preserving in a transformed form that which must perish in a given form. Suppressed by the self-preservation instinct

Hegel opposes the idea of \u200b\u200bliberation from the "slave consciousness", the ability to sacrifice one's life for the sake of higher goals. The ability to comprehend the idea of \u200b\u200bendless development for Hegel is the most important characteristic of human consciousness.

K. Marx already in his early works criticizes the idea of \u200b\u200bindividual immortality of Plutarch, putting forward in contrast to it the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial immortality of man. For Marx, people who are afraid that after their death the fruits of their deeds will not go to them, but to humanity are untenable.

The products of human activity are the best continuation of human life, while the hopes for individual immortality are illusory.

In comprehending tragic situations in world art culture, two extreme positions have emerged: existentialist and Buddhist.

Existentialism has made death a central issue in philosophy and art. German philosopher K. Jaspers emphasizes that knowledge about a person is tragic knowledge. In his book On the Tragic, he notes that the essence of the tragic is not contained in death itself: “The fact that a person is not God means that a person is small and that he will die”. (TO.

Jaspers. "About the tragic." Munich, 1954, p. 28). The tragic, in his opinion, begins where a person takes all his capabilities to the extreme, knowing that he will die. It is, as it were, the self-realization of an individual at the cost of his own life. “Therefore, in tragic knowledge it is essential what a person suffers from and because of what he perishes, what he takes upon himself, in the face of what reality and in what form he betrays his being”. (K. Jaspers "On the tragic". Munich, 1954, p. 29). Jaspers proceeds from the fact that the tragic hero carries both his own happiness and his own death in himself.

The tragic hero is the bearer of something that goes beyond the framework of individual existence, the bearer of power, principle, character, demon.

Tragedy shows a person in his greatness, free from good and evil, writes Jaspers, substantiating this position with reference to Plato's idea that neither good nor evil flows from a small character, and a great nature is capable of both great evil and great good.

Tragedy exists where forces collide, each of which considers itself to be true. On this basis, Jaspers believes that truth is not one, that it is split, and tragedy reveals this.

In some tragedies, the hero (Oedipus, Hamlet) himself asks about the truth. The world demands universal knowledge from man. The inevitable lack of knowledge and ignorance often become the source of the greatest tragedies.

In the tragic, the universal problems of being are comprehended, it is associated with the search for a way out for humanity. In this category, Jaspers emphasizes, reflects not just the misfortune of a person caused by private malfunctions, but the calamities of all mankind, some fundamental imperfections of life. “The tragic view is the way in which human need is seen as metaphysically based. Without a metaphysical basis, there is simply need, misfortune, the tragic appears only with transcendental knowledge. Essays in which only the terrible is depicted as such, robbery, murder, intrigue - in a word, all situations of terrible - are not tragedy. For a tragedy, the hero needs to be gifted with tragic knowledge and the viewer to be in the same state. " (K. Jaspers. "On the tragic". Munich, 1954, p. 42).

Thus, existentialists absolutize the intrinsic value of the individual and emphasize its lack of communication, alienation from society, which leads their concept to a paradox: the death of a personality ceases to be a social problem. If a person is cut off from people, what do they care about her death? A person who is left alone with the universe, does not feel humanity around him, seizes the horror of the inevitable finitude of being. The person who is endowed with supervalue, cut off from people, in fact turns out to be absurd, and his life is devoid of meaning and value.

For Buddhism, a person, dying, turns into another being. If existentialism equates life with death (life is as absurd as death), then Buddhist ideology equates death with life

(a person, dying, continues to live, therefore death does not change anything). In either case, virtually any tragedy is removed.

The death of an individual acquires a tragic sound only where a person, possessing self-worth, lives in the name of people, their interests become the content of his life. In this case, on the one hand, there is a unique individual originality and value of the individual, and on the other, the dying hero finds continuation in the life of society.

Therefore, the death of such a hero is tragic and gives rise to a feeling of irrevocable loss of human individuality (and hence the grief), and at the same time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe continuation of the personality's life in humanity arises (and hence the motive of joy).

The source of the tragic is specific social contradictions - collisions between a socially necessary, urgent demand and the temporary practical impossibility of its implementation.

The inevitable lack of knowledge and ignorance often become the source of the greatest tragedies. The tragic is the sphere of comprehension worldwide

- historical contradictions, search for a way out for humanity. This category reflects not just the misfortune of a person caused by private malfunctions, but the disasters of mankind, some fundamental imperfections of life that affect the fate of the individual.

3. Tragic in art.

Each era brings its own features to the tragic and most vividly emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

For example, an open course of action is inherent in Greek tragedy.

The amusement of the Greek tragedy was firmly based not so much on unexpected plot twists as on the logic of action. The meaning of the tragedy was not in the necessary and fatal outcome, but in the character of the hero's behavior. Thus, the springs of the plot and the results of the action are exposed. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are well known. And this is the naivety, freshness and beauty of ancient Greek art. This course of action played a great artistic role, enhancing the spectator's tragic emotion. For example, Euripides "informed the viewer much earlier about all the disasters that should break out over the heads of his characters, trying to inspire compassion for them even when they themselves were far from considering themselves worthy of compassion." (G. E. Lessing. Selected works. M., 1953, p.

Knowledge of the future is often inherent in the heroes of ancient tragedy. Divinations, predictions, prophetic dreams, prophetic words of gods and oracles - all this organically enters the world of tragedy, not at all removing, not dulling the viewer's interest. "Amusement", interest for the viewer in the Greek tragedy was firmly based not so much on unexpected plot twists, but on the logic of the action. The whole point of the tragedy was not in the necessary and fatal outcome, but in the character of the hero's behavior. What is important here is what happens, and especially how it happens.

The hero of the ancient tragedy acts in the mainstream of necessity. He is unable to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and it is only through his freedom, through his actions that what should happen is realized. It is not necessity that attracts the ancient hero to the denouement, but he himself brings it closer, realizing his tragic fate.

Such is Oedipus in the tragedy of Sophocles "Oedipus the King". By his own will, consciously and freely, he searches for the causes of the misfortunes that have fallen on the heads of the inhabitants of Thebes. And when it turns out that the "investigation" threatens to turn against the main "investigator" and that the culprit of the misfortune of Thebes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father by the will of fate and married his mother, he does not stop the "investigation", but brings it to the end. Such is the

Antigone is the heroine of another tragedy of Sophocles.

Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey orders.

Creon, on pain of death forbidding to bury her brother, who fought against Thebes. The law of clan relations, which is expressed in the need to bury the body of a brother, whatever the cost, acts equally in relation to both sisters, but Antigone becomes a tragic hero because she fulfills this need in her free actions. The ancient choir sings about Antigone:

In the color of youth, freely

You are going to die for debt.

("Greek tragedy". M., 1956, p. 151).

The Greek tragedy is heroic. In Aeschylus, Prometheus performs a feat in the name of selfless service to man and pays for the transfer of fire to people. The chorus sings, exalting Prometheus:

You dared with your heart, you never

You cannot yield to cruel troubles.

(Greek tragedy. M., 1956, p. 61).

The purpose of the ancient tragedy is catharsis. In other words, the feelings depicted in the tragedy purify the viewer's feelings. Just as a diamond can be polished only with a diamond, for it is the hardest substance on earth, so feelings can only be polished with feelings, for it is the most delicate, fragile substance in the universe.

In the Middle Ages, the tragic appears not as heroic, but as martyr. Its purpose is consolation.

In contrast to Prometheus, the perception of the tragedy of Christ is permeated through and through with passive, sorrowful notes, illuminated by a martyr's light. This is well shown in the liturgical drama Lament of the Three Marys:

“Mary the Elder (... here she kisses Magdalene and hugs her with both hands): Mourn mournfully with me (here she points to

Christ) the death of my sweetest son ...

Mary Magdalene (here she greets Mary with both hands): Mother

Jesus crucified (here she wipes away her tears), together with you I will mourn the death of Jesus ...

Mary, the mother of Jacob (here she points in a circle to all those present and then, raising her hand to her eyes, says): Who is here who would not cry if he saw the mother of Christ in such sorrow ... "(Reader on the history of Western European theater ”, Volume 1.

M., 1953, p. 63).

In medieval theater, the martyr's, passive principle was emphasized in every possible way in the actor's interpretation of the image of Christ. Sometimes the actor "got used" so strongly to the image of the crucified that he himself was not far from death. Here is how one of his contemporaries describes the performance of the Mystery of the Passion in Metz (1437): “And the priest named Nicole played the role of the Lord of God ... The life of the aforementioned priest was in great danger, and he almost died while on the cross, since he his heart stopped beating, and he would have died if he had not been helped. "

(A reader on the history of Western European theater ", volume 1. Moscow, 1953, p. 109).

Most of the heroes of Christian tragedy were martyrs. "But we live in a time when the voice of common reason is heard too loudly for any madman who willingly goes to death without any need, despising all his civic duties, dare to claim the title of martyr." (G. E. Lessing. Selected Works, pp. 517 - 518).

Medieval tragedy is foreign to the concept of catharsis. This is not a tragedy of purification, but a tragedy of consolation. It is no coincidence that the legend of Tristan and

Isolde ends with words addressed to all those suffering from love:

"May they find consolation here in impermanence and injustice, in vexation and adversity, in all the sufferings of love."

For the medieval tragedy of consolation, logic is characteristic: you feel bad, but they (the heroes, or rather, the martyrs of the tragedy) are better than you, and they are worse than you, so take comfort in your sufferings by the fact that there are sufferings that are bitter, and people have more less than you deserve it.

Earthly consolation (you are not the only one who suffers) is intensified by the consolation of the otherworldly (there you will not suffer and you will be rewarded as you deserve).

If in ancient tragedy the most unusual things happen quite naturally, then in medieval tragedy the supernatural, the miraculousness of what is happening takes an important place.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the majestic figure of Dante rises. On his interpretation of the tragic lie deep shadows of the Middle Ages, and at the same time, the solar reflections of the hopes of the new time shine.

Dante has no doubt about the need for Francesca's eternal torment and

Paolo, who with their love violated the moral foundations of their century and the monolith of the existing world order, shook, transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky. And at the same time, the "Divine Comedy" lacks the second

The "pillar" of the aesthetic system of medieval tragedy is supernatural, magic. For Dante and his readers, the geography of hell is absolutely real and the hellish whirlwind that carries the lovers is real. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal, which was inherent in ancient tragedy. And it is this return to antiquity on a new basis that makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance.

Dante's tragic sympathy for Francesca and Paolo is much more frank than that of the unnamed author of the tale of Tristan and Isolde for his heroes. For the latter, this sympathy is contradictory, inconsistent, it is often either replaced by moral condemnation, or explained by reasons of a magical nature (sympathy for people who have drunk a magic potion). Dante directly, openly, based on the motives of his heart, sympathizes with Paolo and Francesca, although he considers it immutable that they should be doomed to eternal torment, and reveals the touchingly martyr's (and not heroic) nature of their tragedy:

The spirit spoke, tormented by terrible oppression,

Another sobbed, and the anguish of their hearts

She covered my brow with mortal sweat;

And I fell like a dead man falls.

(Dante Alighieri. "Divine Comedy". Ad. M., 1961, p. 48).

Shakespeare. For him, the whole world, including the sphere of human passions and tragedies, does not need any otherworldly explanation, it is not based on evil fate, not God, not magic or evil spells. The cause of the world, the causes of its tragedies are in itself.

Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. From the characters themselves, action is born. Fatal words: "His name is Romeo: he is a son

Montague, son of your enemy ”- did not change Juliet's relationship to her lover. It is not constrained by any external regulatory principles. The only measure and driving force behind her actions is herself, her character, her love for Romeo.

The Renaissance era in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict.

The tragedy during this period opened the state of the world, confirmed the activity of man and the freedom of his will.

The tragic character is fused from a special material; it would seem that the essence of Hamlet's tragedy lies in the events that happened to him. But similar misfortunes befell Laertes. Why don't we talk about his tragedy? Laertes is passive, while Hamlet himself, deliberately meets tragic circumstances. He chooses to fight the "sea of \u200b\u200btroubles". It is this choice that is discussed in the famous monologue:

To be or not to be, that is the question.

Is it worthy

Resign ourselves to the blows of fate

Or must we resist

And in mortal combat with a whole sea of \u200b\u200btroubles

End them? Die. Forget it.

(W. Shakespeare. "Hamlet". M., 1964, p. 111).

In one of B. Shaw's humorous aphorisms, it is said that smart people adapt to the world, fools try to adapt the world to themselves, therefore they change the world and make history fools. This aphorism, in a paradoxical form, actually expresses Hegel's concept of tragic guilt. A prudent person, acting according to common sense, is guided only by the established prejudices of his time.

The tragic hero acts in accordance with the need to fulfill himself, regardless of any circumstances. The hero of the tragedy acts freely, choosing the direction and goals of his actions. And in this sense, his activity, his own character is the reason for his death.

The tragic denouement is internally inherent in the personality itself. External circumstances can only manifest or not manifest the properties of the tragic hero, but the reason for his actions is in himself.

Consequently, he carries his own death within himself; he bears tragic guilt.

NG Chernyshevsky rightly said that to see someone to blame in a dying person is a strained and cruel thought, and stressed that the blame for the hero's death lies with unfavorable social circumstances that need to be changed. However, one cannot ignore the rational kernel of Hegel's concept of tragic guilt: the character of the tragic hero is active; he resists threatening circumstances, seeks to resolve the most complex issues of life by action.

Hegel spoke of the ability of tragedy to explore the state of the world. AT

"Hamlet" it, for example, is defined as follows: "the connection of times has disintegrated",

"The whole world is a prison, and Denmark is the worst of the dungeons", "a century dislocated from the joints." The image of a global flood has a deep meaning. There are eras when history is overflowing. Then, for a long time and slowly, it enters the channel and continues that unhurried, then stormy current for centuries.

Happy is the poet who, in the age of history overflowing the shores, touched his contemporaries with a pen: he will inevitably touch history; in his work, one way or another, at least some of the essential aspects of the deep historical process will be reflected. In such an era, great art becomes a mirror of history. Shakespeare's tradition - a reflection of the state of the world, global problems - is the principle of modern tragedy.

Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare.

The Renaissance era gave rise to the tragedy of the unregulated personality.

The only regulation for man was the first and last commandment

Thelem monastery: "Do what you want" (Rabelais. "Gargartua and

Pantagruel "). However, freed from the fetters of medieval religious morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor.

The coming era of individualism showed a willingness to transform the Rabelaisian thesis "do what you want" into the Hobbesian slogan "war of all against all." Shakespeare's heroes (Othello, Hamlet) are relaxed and not limited in their actions. And the actions of the forces of evil (Iago, Claudius) are just as free and not regulated by anything.

The hopes of the humanists that the individual, having got rid of medieval restrictions, rationally and in the name of good, will dispose of their freedom turned out to be illusory. The utopia of an unregulated personality has in fact turned into its absolute regulation. In France, 17th century. this regulation manifested itself: in the sphere of politics - in the absolutist state, in the sphere of science and philosophy - in the teachings of Descartes about the method that introduces human thought into the channel of strict rules, in the sphere of art - in classicism. The tragedy of utopian absolute freedom is replaced by the tragedy of the real absolute normative conditioning of the individual. The universal principle in the image of the duty of the individual in relation to the state acts as restrictions on his behavior, and these restrictions come into conflict with the free will of man, with his passions and desires. This conflict becomes central to tragedies

Corneille and Racine.

Byron ("Cain") affirms the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle with it.

Lucifer is the embodiment of such a universal evil. Cain cannot come to terms with any restrictions on the freedom and power of the human spirit. The meaning of his life is in rebellion, in active opposition to eternal evil, in the desire to forcibly change his position in the world. Evil is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate it from life even at the cost of his own death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero does not allow establishing the undivided domination of evil on earth. Through his struggle, he creates oases of life in the desert, where evil reigns.

The art of critical realism revealed the tragic discord between personality and society. One of the greatest tragic works of the 19th century.

- "Boris Godunov" by A. Pushkin. Godunov wants to use power for the benefit of the people. But on the way to power, he commits evil - he kills the innocent prince Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of alienation, and then anger. Pushkin shows that you cannot fight for a people without a people. The powerful, active character of Boris is reminiscent of the heroes of Shakespeare in many of its features. However, profound differences are also felt: in Shakespeare, personality is in the center, in Pushkin's tragedy, human fate is the fate of the people; the deeds of the individual are for the first time compared with the good of the people. Such problems are the product of a new era. The people act as the protagonist of the tragedy and the supreme judge of the heroes' actions.

The same feature is inherent in opera and musical tragic images.

M.P. Mussorgsky. His operas "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" brilliantly embody Pushkin's formula of tragedy about the fusion of human and national destinies. For the first time, a people appeared on the opera stage, inspired by a single idea of \u200b\u200bthe struggle against slavery, violence and arbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people set off the tragedy of Tsar Boris's conscience. For all his good intentions, Boris remains alien to the people and secretly fears the people, who sees it as the cause of their misfortunes. Mussorgsky deeply developed specific musical means of conveying tragic life content: musical and dramatic contrasts, bright themes, mournful intonations, dark tonality and dark timbres of orchestration (bassoons in low register in Boris

“The soul grieves ...).

The development of the theme of rock in the Fifth Symphony was of great importance for the development of the philosophical principle in tragic musical works.

Beethoven. This theme was further developed in Tchaikovsky's Fourth, Sixth and especially Fifth Symphonies. He addresses the theme of tragic love in his symphonic works Romeo and Juliet,

Francesca da Rimini. In the latter, rock breaks up happiness, and despair is heard with increasing intensity in the music. The motive of despair also appears in the Fourth Symphony, but here the hero finds support in the power of the eternal life of the people. Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony reveals the awakening of the hero's spiritual powers. The intense tragedy ends in the finale with the theme of the painful sadness of parting with life. The tragic in Tchaikovsky's symphonies expresses the contradiction between human aspirations and life obstacles, between the infinity of creative impulses and the finiteness of the personality's being.

In critical realism of the 19th century. (Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Gogol,

Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others) the non-tragic character becomes the hero of tragic situations. In life, tragedy has become an "ordinary story", and its hero - an alienated, "private and partial" (Hegel) person. And therefore, in art, tragedy as a genre disappears, but as an element it penetrates into all kinds and genres of art, capturing the intolerance of the discord between man and society.

In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the personality. The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life - such is the concept of the tragic and the pathos of developing this theme in critical realism of the 20th century.

(E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, L. Frank, G. Böll, F. Fellini, M.

Antonioni, J. Gershwin and others).

- the revolution. The revolutionary collision must become the focal point of modern tragedy. In it, the motives and grounds for the actions of the heroes are rooted not in their personal whims, but in that historical movement that raises them to struggle on its crest. "The death of the squadron" A.

Korneichuk, "The Defeat" by A. Fadeev, "Optimistic Tragedy" Vs.

Vishnevsky, the painting by K. Petrov - Vodkin "The Death of the Commissar" reveal the revolution not as a background of events, but as a state of the world. Here the tragic acts as the highest manifestation of the heroic: the activity of the character of the tragic hero rises to the level of offensiveness. Facing the formidable state of the world, his struggle and even death, the hero makes a breakthrough to a higher, more perfect state. The hero's personal responsibility for his free, active action, reflected in the Hegelian category of tragic guilt, in M.A.

Sholokhova rose to the level of historical responsibility. The theme of the responsibility of the individual to history is deeply disclosed in "Quiet

Don. " The world-historical context of a person's actions turns him into a conscious or unwitting participant in the historical process. This makes the hero responsible for the choice of the path, for the correct solution of the issues of life and understanding of its meaning. The character of the tragic hero is verified by the very course of history, by its laws. The character of Sholokhov's hero is contradictory: he is now shallow, then deepened by inner torment, then tempered by difficult trials. Its fate is tragic: the hurricane bends to the ground and leaves a thin and weak birch forest unharmed, but upturns a mighty oak tree by its roots.

In music, a new type of tragic symphony was developed by D.D.

Shostakovich. If in P. I. Tchaikovsky's symphonies rock always invades the life of the individual from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, Shostakovich has such a confrontation only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil that interrupts the calm flow of life (the theme of the invasion in the first part of Seventh Symphony) In the Fifth Symphony, where the composer artistically explores the problem of the formation of personality, evil is revealed as the wrong side of the human. The finale of the symphony is cheerful and resolves the tragic tension of the first movements. In the Fourteenth Symphony, Shostakovich solves the eternal themes of love, life, death. Both music and poetry are full of deep philosophy and tragedy. The symphony ends with Rilke's verses:

Death is omnipotent.

She's on guard

And in the hour of happiness.

In the moment of higher life, she suffers in us,

Waiting for us and longs for -

And crying in us.

Using the image of death as a contrast, the composer affirms the beauty of life.

4. Tragic in life.

The manifestations of the tragic in life are diverse: from the death of a child or the death of a person full of creative energy to the defeat of the national liberation movement; from the tragedy of an individual person to the tragedy of an entire nation. The tragic can also be concluded in the struggle of man with the forces of nature. But the main source of this category is the struggle between good and evil, death and immortality, where death affirms life values, reveals the meaning of human existence, where there is a philosophical understanding of the world.

The First World War, for example, went down in history as one of the bloodiest and most brutal wars. Never (until 1914) did the opposing sides deploy such huge armies for mutual destruction.

All the achievements of science and technology were aimed at exterminating people. During the war years 10 million people were killed, 20 million people were wounded. In addition, significant human losses were suffered by the civilian population, who died not only as a result of hostilities, but also from hunger and disease that raged during the war.

The war entailed colossal material losses. Cities and villages, railways and bridges, factories and plants were wiped off the face of the earth. Taxes, high prices, unemployment were a heavy burden on the working people of the warring countries. The war gave birth to a massive revolutionary and democratic movement, the participants of which demanded a radical renewal of life.

Then came to power in Germany in January 1933, the fascist National Socialist Labor Party, the party of revenge and war. By the summer of 1941 Germany and Italy had occupied 12 European countries and extended their rule to a significant part of Europe. In the occupied countries, they established a fascist occupation regime, which they called the "new order": they abolished democratic freedoms, disbanded political parties and trade unions, and banned strikes and demonstrations. The economy of the enslaved countries was used in the interests of the occupiers. Industry worked on their orders, agriculture supplied them with raw materials and food, labor was used to build military facilities. All this led to the Second World War, as a result of which fascism suffered a complete defeat. But at what cost did it all cost? The Second World War left its mark on the entire history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.

In contrast to the First World War, in the Second World War, the majority of human losses were among the civilian population. Only in

The deaths of the USSR amounted to at least 27 million people. In Germany, 12 million people were killed in concentration camps. 5 million people became victims of war and repression in Western European countries. For every person killed in hostilities, there were two wounded or captured. To these 60 million lost lives in Europe must be added the many millions who died in the Pacific and other theaters of World War II.

1945 an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on a Japanese city

Hiroshima. The atomic explosion caused terrible disasters: 90% of the buildings burned down, the rest turned into ruins. Of the 306 thousand residents of Hiroshima, more than 90 thousand people died immediately. Tens of thousands of people later died from wounds, burns and radiation exposure. With the explosion of the first atomic bomb, mankind entered the "atomic era." It received at its disposal an inexhaustible source of energy and at the same time a terrible weapon capable of destroying all living things.

No sooner had mankind entered the 21st century than a new wave of tragic events swept the entire planet. These are the intensification of terrorist acts, natural disasters, and environmental problems. So, for example, economic activity in a number of states today is developed so powerfully that it affects the environmental situation not only within a single country, but also far beyond its borders.

Typical examples.

Great Britain "exports" 2/3 of its industrial emissions.

75-90% of acid rain in the Scandinavian countries is of foreign origin.

Acid rain in Great Britain affects 2/3 of forests, and in continental Europe - about half of their area.

The United States lacks the oxygen that naturally reproduces on its territory.

The largest rivers, lakes, seas of Europe and North America are intensively polluted by industrial waste from enterprises of various countries that use their water resources.

From 1950 to 1984, the production of mineral fertilizers increased from

13.5 million tons to 121 million tons per year. Their use gave 1/3 of the increase in agricultural production.

At the same time, the use of chemical fertilizers has increased dramatically in recent decades, as well as various chemical plant protection products has become one of the most important causes of global environmental pollution. Carried by water and air over vast distances, they are included in the geochemical circulation of substances throughout the Earth, often causing significant damage to nature, and to man himself. The rapidly developing process of bringing environmentally harmful enterprises to underdeveloped countries has become very characteristic of our time.

The huge and ever-expanding scale of the use of natural mineral resources has led not only to the depletion of raw materials in individual countries, but also to a significant depletion of the entire resource base of the planet.

The era of extensive use of the potential of the biosphere is ending before our eyes. This is confirmed by the following factors:

Today there is very little undeveloped land left for farming;

The area of \u200b\u200bdeserts is systematically increasing. From 1975 to 2000, it increased by 20%;

The decline in the planet's forest cover is of great concern. FROM

1950 to 2000, the area of \u200b\u200bforests will decrease by almost 10%, and yet forests are the lungs of the entire Earth;

The exploitation of water basins, including the World Ocean, is carried out on such a scale that nature does not have time to reproduce what man takes.

Continuous development of industry, transport, agriculture, etc. requires a sharp increase in energy consumption and entails an ever-increasing burden on nature. At present, even climate change is taking place as a result of intense human activity.

Compared to the beginning of the last century, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 30%, and 10% of this increase was given by the last 30 years. An increase in its concentration leads to the so-called greenhouse effect, as a result of which the climate of the entire planet is warming.

Scientists believe that this kind of change is already taking place in our time. As a result of human activity, warming occurred within 0.5 degrees. However, if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere doubles compared to its level in the pre-industrial era, i.e. will increase by another 70%, then there will be very sharp changes in the life of the Earth. First of all, by 2-4 degrees, and at the poles by 6-8 degrees, the average temperature will rise, which, in turn, will cause irreversible processes:

Melting ice;

Rise of the world ocean level by one meter;

Flooding of many coastal areas;

Change in moisture exchange on the Earth's surface;

Reduction in precipitation;

Change in wind direction.

It is clear that such changes will pose huge problems for people associated with economic management, reproduction of the necessary conditions for their life.

Today, as rightly one of the first marks of V.I. Vernadsky, humanity has gained such power in transforming the surrounding world that it begins to significantly influence the evolution of the biosphere as a whole.

Human economic activity in our time already entails climate change, it affects the chemical composition of the water and air basins of the Earth on the flora and fauna of the planet, on its entire appearance. And this is a tragedy for all mankind as a whole.

5. The essence of the tragic.

Tragedy is a harsh word full of hopelessness. It carries the cold reflection of death, it breathes with an icy breath. But just as the light and shadows of a sunset make objects for sight volumetric, the consciousness of death makes a person more acutely experience all the charm and bitterness, all the joy and complexity of being. And when death is near, then in this

In a "borderline" situation, all the colors of the world are more clearly visible, its aesthetic wealth, its sensual charm, the greatness of the familiar, truth and falsehood, good and evil, the very meaning of human existence, appear more clearly.

Tragedy is always an optimistic tragedy, in which even death serves life.

So the tragic reveals:

1. death or severe suffering of the person;

2. irreplaceability for people of its loss;

3. immortal socially valuable beginnings, embedded in a unique individuality, and its continuation in the life of mankind;

4. higher problems of being, the social meaning of human life;

5. activity of a tragic nature in relation to circumstances;

6. philosophically meaningful state of the world;

7. historically, temporarily insoluble contradictions;

8. tragic, embodied in art, has a cleansing effect on people.

Great art is always impatient with the future. It hastens life. What Hegel called the hero's tragic guilt is an amazing ability to live, not adapting to the imperfection of the world, but proceeding from the idea of \u200b\u200blife as it should be. Such disagreement with the environment is fraught with disastrous consequences for the individual: thunderclouds hang over it, from which, in the end, the lightning of death strikes. However, it is precisely the person who does not want to conform to anything that paves the way to a more perfect state of the world, through suffering and death opens new horizons of human existence.

The central problem of a tragic work is the expansion of human capabilities, the breaking of those boundaries that have historically formed, but have become close for the most courageous and active people, inspired by lofty ideals. The tragic hero paves the way for the future, he explodes the established boundaries, he is always at the forefront of the struggle of mankind, the greatest difficulties fall on his shoulders.

Tragedy provides a concept of life, it reveals its social meaning.

The essence and purpose of human existence cannot be found either in a life for oneself, or in a life detached from oneself: the development of the individual should go not at the expense, but in the name of the whole society, in the name of humanity. On the other hand, the entire society should develop in and through a person, and not in spite of him and not at his expense. This is the highest aesthetic ideal, this is the way to a humanistic solution to the problem of man and humanity, such is the conceptual conclusion offered by the world history of tragic art.

6. The comic is a sociocultural reality.

The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language explains: “Laughter is short and strong exhalation movements with an open mouth, accompanied by characteristic intermittent sounds.” Everything is correct. But if this was all in laughter, then it would only be suitable for tearing down houses of cards, and would never become the subject of aesthetic consideration.

In fact, laughter, as noted by Saltykov-Shchedrin, is a very powerful weapon, for nothing discourages a vice like the consciousness that it has been guessed, and that laughter has already been heard about it. (Saltykov - Shchedrin. Complete collection.

Vol. 13. L., 1936, p. 270). Herzen wrote that “laughter is one of the most powerful weapons of destruction; Voltaire's laughter beat and burned like lightning. With laughter, idols fall, wreaths and salaries fall, and the miraculous icon becomes a blackened and badly drawn picture. " (A. I. Herzen. Collected Works in thirty volumes, volume 14. M., 1958, p. 117). For V. Mayakovsky sharpness

- "weapon of the favorite kind".

One could endlessly continue the raptures and praises in honor of laughter. And that's not a bad amount of worship. In any case, worship of humor is better than worship of a deified person. In a sense, laughter and the deified personality are rivals, mutually exclusive.

The victory of one almost excludes the existence of the second.

All the eulogies in honor of laughter assert the fame of the most powerful weapon behind it. In the age of the atomic bomb it would be inhumane to glorify a weapon, however, unlike any other weapon, laughter has colossal selectivity. "A bullet is a fool", does not understand who it is flying at, it does not matter to her. Laughter always "marks the rogue." He can only get into a vulnerable person or a vulnerable person. Laughter is a powerful means of social influence, a formidable and humane weapon.

The comic is reality. Idealists deny the objective basis of the comic. This is how, for example, the German writer and esthetician Jean Paul examines the nature of the comic on the material of one of the episodes "Don -

Quixote "Cervantes. When Sancho Panza hangs all night in the air over a shallow ditch, believing that there is a gaping abyss under him, then under this assumption, his actions are quite understandable. He would be a fool to jump off and crash. Why are we laughing? The essence of the comic for Jean

Fields in the "substitution": "We lend him (Sancho Panza) to aspiration our understanding of the matter and view of things, and we extract from such a contradiction an endless incongruity ... the comic ... always dwells not in the object of laughter, but in the subject." (Jean Paul. Preschool Aesthetics. Hamburg, 1804, p. 104).

However, in the episode with Sancho Panza, the point is not that we substitute an opposite understanding of circumstances under someone else's desire.

The comic is in the object itself. Sancho Panza himself is comical, since for all his sobriety of thinking, he turned out to be cowardly and could not figure out the real situation. These qualities are opposite to the ideal, and therefore, naturally, they are the object of ridicule.

Human society is the true realm of comedy as well as tragedy. Man is the only creature that can laugh and cause laughter, or, more precisely, human, social content is in all objects of comedic laughter. Sometimes researchers mistakenly look for a source of comic in the natural features of natural phenomena: in the whimsicality of clouds, cliffs, minerals (for example, stalactites), in the unusual appearance and behavior of monkeys, bears, foxes, in the strange form of cacti. German philosopher A. Zeising says that in one of the scenes

"Hamlet" Shakespeare laughs at the comical metamorphosis of clouds. But is it?

Hamlet. Do you see that cloud, almost like a camel?

Polonium. Honestly, it really looks like a camel.

Hamlet. In my opinion, it looks like a swallow.

Polonium. He has a back like a swallow.

Hamlet. Or like a whale?

Polonium. Just like a whale.

However, Shakespeare here mocks not the "metamorphoses of the clouds," but the metamorphoses of the unprincipled, obsequious Polonius.

Some theorists cite, at first glance, more convincing examples of natural comicism - an animal in a fable. However, even the aesthetics of the 18th century. proved that animals in fables personify certain human characters. The comic is always the objective social value of a phenomenon. The natural properties of animals (the mobility and grimacing of a monkey, the developed instincts of a fox that help her to deceive enemies, the sluggishness of a bear, etc.) associate with human habits, actions, manners and become the object of aesthetic assessment based on social practice. They appear in their comic only when social content is seen through their natural form - human characters, human relationships, etc. Through natural phenomena, human shortcomings are ridiculed: fuss, cunning, awkwardness, sluggishness, slow-wittedness.

Laughter can cause various phenomena: tickling, and intoxicating drinks, and laughing gas. In Africa, there have been cases of an infectious and epidemic disease, expressed in a long, exhausting laugh. The Avaricious Knight smiles at his treasures, and Chichikov - about the happy outcome of his dishonorable deed.

However, not everything funny is comical, although comic is always funny.

The comic is a wonderful sister of the funny, giving rise to a socially significant, inspired by aesthetic ideals, bright, high laughter, denying some human qualities and social phenomena and affirming others. Depending on the circumstances, the phenomenon can be either funny or comical. When a person's trousers suddenly fall off, those around him can laugh. However, there is no true comic here. But in the short Hungarian film Revenge of Marriage, a negligent worker in a sewing workshop is depicted wearing trousers of his own production. When trousers fall from this culprit of his own misadventures, laughter takes on a comedic character.

The comic is social in its objective (feature of the subject) and its subjective (character of perception) side. The perception of the comic is always socially conditioned. What is funny to one person may appear sad to another. The historical, the national, the class and the common to all mankind are in the comic in a complex dialectical unity.

7. Expression and perception of the comic.

Laughter is contagious and tends to be collectivity, but more intense in public. The most favorable for the comic are those arts that are designed for a mass audience - theater, cinema, circus. It is characteristic that actors, who are well aware of the peculiarities of the perception of the comic, usually address the comedy text not directly to the viewers, but to the audience with which there is feedback. Arkady Raikin, for example, trusted the television to broadcast a pop performance, in which live communication with the public and its comedic reaction sound the TV show with laughter.

The comic is also reflected in music, which speaks to people in the direct language of the soul. For the perception of the comic in instrumental music, the listener's receptive mood is important, due, in particular, to the author's designation of the genre of the work. Transforming genres is one way to create comic in music. For example, J. Haydn in London symphonies breaks the logic of dance and everyday genres with unexpected pauses and contrasts, which results in a comic effect.

The genre of comic opera took shape with the appearance of opera - buff in Italy in the 1830s. Its highest flowering is the work of J. Pergolesi.

Full of hilarious humor, opera-buff democratized theater and music, which became simple and songy and included folk motifs. In

France's comic opera arose out of fairground performances. She met the cultural needs of the third estate. Opera-buff influenced the work of Viennese classics, and through them European music, developing many features of musical and comedic expressiveness: homophonic warehouse, periodicity, motor speed, tongue twister, clear harmonic logic, motivational fragmentation, connection with everyday folk melody. These features became the basis of the comic musical language.

For example, in Farlaf's aria from Mikhail Glinka's opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" and in Varlaam's aria from Mikhail Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov, a comedy tongue twister sounds.

The only art form incapable of reflecting the comic is architecture. A comic building or structure is a disaster for the viewer, and for the resident, and for the visitor. Architecture, directly expressing the ideals of society, cannot, because of its specificity, directly criticize, deny, and, consequently, ridicule anything. Meanwhile, the comic in art always includes a highly developed critical beginning. Laughter is an emotionally intense aesthetic form of criticism. It provides an artist (eg Rabelais, Voltaire) with endless possibilities for seriously - humorously and humorously - seriously dealing with the prejudices of his time.

Comedy is the fruit of a developed civilization. Laughter is inherently democratic. He is hostile to hierarchy, admiration for ranks and exaggerated authorities. It acts as a force hostile to all forms of inequality, violence, autocracy, Fuhrerism. A. I. Herzen wrote:

"If the lower ones are allowed to laugh at the god Apis, it means to cut him from the holy rank into simple bulls." (Herzen A. I. About art. M.,

1954, p. 223). The satire of Andersen's wonderful tale of the naked king is based on this feature of laughter. After all, the king is only as long as the king, while those around him treat him as subjects. But as soon as people believe their eyes, understand that the king is naked, the people laughed - and goodbye respect, admiration.

The enemy's comic is his Achilles heel. To reveal the comic nature of the enemy means to win the first victory, to mobilize forces to fight against him, to overcome fear and confusion.

The comic is a criticism of modernity. Laughter is modern, its target is always specific and definite. Even if the satirist writes about the past, his laughter is topical. In the history of the village of Goryukhina, or the city

Foolov, or in "Poshekhonskaya antiquity" the goal and address of satire is modernity.

The Czech writer K. Czapek in the story "Alexander the Great" opposes autocracy. The story is written in the form of a letter from Alexander to his teacher Aristotle. The author draws the image of a usurper demanding the praise of his person, and shows how in the process of deification of the person, false propaganda and pharisaism are combined with threats and direct violence. The splendor of Alexander's court displeased the representatives of the old Macedonian guard. “In this regard, unfortunately, I was forced to execute my old comrades-in-arms ... I was very sorry for them, but there was no other way out ...” - writes the newly-minted emperor. (Chapek K. Stories, essays, plays. M., 1954, p. 61).

Alexander is ready to accept not only these losses: “Circumstances demand more and more personal sacrifices from me, and I bear them, grumbling, thinking only about the greatness and strength of my illustrious empire. One has to get used to the barbaric luxury and splendor of Eastern customs. " The reader sympathizes with "poor" Alexander from the bottom of his heart, realizing how "morally difficult" it is for him to endure luxury. “I took as my wife,” Alexander writes further.

Macedonian, - three Eastern princesses, and now, dear Aristotle, I even proclaimed myself a god. "

With true selflessness, he goes to this new "deprivation", which is required of him by historical necessity: "Yes, my dear teacher, by God! My faithful ... subjects worship me and offer sacrifices for my glory. This is politically necessary in order to give me the credibility I deserve with these mountain pastoralists and camel drivers. How long was the time when you taught me to act according to reason and logic! But what can you do, the mind itself says that one should adapt to human ignorance. " Fuehrerism is always a crescendo of madness. But even a great commander cannot hold on to swords alone: \u200b\u200b“And now I ask you, my wise friend and mentor, to philosophically substantiate and convincingly motivate the Greeks and Macedonians to declare me God. In doing this, I am acting like a responsible politician and statesman. " And he ends his letter with a hint of sanctions in case of "unpatriotic" behavior.

Aristotle: “This is my assignment. It depends on you whether you will carry out it in full consciousness of the political importance, expediency and patriotic meaning of this matter. " (Chapek K. Stories, essays, plays, pp. 62, 63).

So with the help of force, pharisaism and "philosophical justification"

Alexander elevated himself to gods. However, when the "earthly god" manages to ascend to the heights of autocracy, humanity does not deny itself the right to publish something like the correspondence between Alexander and his teacher. And then the divine personality suddenly turns into a comic personality. And what society begins to ridicule must be corrected or destroyed.

Laughter is an extremely intelligible and contagious form of emotional criticism, which involves consciously active perception from the audience. Criticism and incrimination in comic are not expressed directly, and the perceiving humor is brought to an independent critical attitude towards the laughed at the phenomenon. L. Feuerbach in "Lectures on the Essence of Religion" noted that a witty manner of writing presupposes intelligence in the reader as well, it does not express everything, it leaves the reader to himself to tell himself about the relations, conditions and restrictions under which this provision is only important and can be conceivable.

Mistrust in the mind of the audience generates flat and sometimes vulgar laughter.

Unlike tragedy, comedy does not articulate the ideal “directly and positively,” but implies it as something opposite to what is portrayed. And the perceiving (recipient) has to independently oppose in his consciousness the high aesthetic ideals of the comic phenomenon.

8. The comic as a contradiction.

The essence of the comic is contradiction. Comic is the result of contrast, discord, opposition: ugly - beautiful

(Aristotle), insignificant - sublime (I. Kant), absurd - judicious (Jean Paul, A. Schopenhauer), endless predetermination - endless arbitrariness (F. Schelling), automatic - living (A. Bergson), false, seemingly solid - significant, lasting and true (Hegel), internal emptiness - an appearance that claims to be significant (N.G. Chernyshevsky), lower middle - higher average (N. Hartman), etc. Each of these definitions, developed in the history of aesthetic thought, reveals and absolutizes one of the types of comedic contradiction. However, the forms of comic contradiction are varied. It always contains two opposite principles, the first of which seems positive and attracts attention, but in fact turns out to be a negative property. I. Kant saw the essence of the comic in the sudden resolution of tense expectation into nothing. French philosopher and educator of the 18th century

C. Montesquieu wrote: "When an outrage is unexpected for us, it can cause a kind of fun and even laughter." (Montesquieu S. Selected works. M., 1955, p. 753).

For the contradictions that generate the comic, it is characteristic that the first side of the perception in terms of time of perception looks significant and makes a great impression on us, while the second side, which we perceive in time later, disappoints with its inconsistency.

The psychological mechanism of comedic laughter, oddly enough, is akin to the mechanism of fright, amazement. These different manifestations of spiritual activity are related by the fact that these are experiences not prepared by previous events. The person tuned in to the perception of the significant, the essential, and suddenly the insignificant, an empty thing appeared before him; he expected to see the beautiful, human, and before him - an ugly, soulless mannequin, a living doll. Laughter is always a joyous "fright", a joyful "disappointment - amazement", which is exactly the opposite of delight and admiration. Perceiving the comedy of N. V. Gogol

“Inspector”, it turns out, we are deceived into thinking that the mayor correctly takes Khlestakov for an inspector, and we are delusional in assuming that the person who is taken for an inspector must be, if not the least bit solid and positive, then at least a person who really worth fearing. It turns out that we have a trick. ... There is a huge, screaming discrepancy between who Khlestakov really is and who he is mistaken for, between what a government official should be and what he really is. The most important thing is to grasp this contradiction: to see the inner behind the external, for the particular - the general, for the phenomenon - the essence. It is joyful to realize that everything that is dangerous to society is not only formidable, but also internally untenable and comical. The world of wicks and dead souls is terrible, but it is also comical: it is below perfection, it does not correspond to high ideals. Realizing this, we rise above danger. Even the most formidable danger will not defeat us. It can bring us death, but the tragedy can be survived, but our ideals must be higher and therefore stronger, and therefore invincible, and therefore we laugh at dead souls, at mayors, at the reality that gave birth to them.

N. V. Gogol does not know a way out of the contradictions that he reveals in his works, and therefore his laughter is laughter through tears. But he has a tremendous moral and aesthetic superiority over the world he depicts of wicks and grip. That is why bright laughter emanates from the soul of the artist and his readers.

What would happen if surprise, lightning speed were absent in sharpness? Everything would be mundane, measured. There would not be such an unusual and acute opposition of fact to high aesthetic ideals. There would be no such high activity of our thought in the process of perceiving this opposition. The light would not have flashed in which the phenomenon appears in its comic form.

The meaning of surprise in the comic is revealed by the ancient myth of

Parmeniske, who, once frightened, lost the ability to laugh and suffered greatly from this. He turned to the Delphic Oracle for help. He advised him to look for the image of Latona, mother

Apollo. Parmeniscus expected to see a statue of a beautiful woman, but instead he was shown ... a block. And Parmeniscus laughed!

This myth is filled with rich theoretical and aesthetic content. Laughter

Parmenisca was caused by a discrepancy between what he expected and what he unexpectedly saw in reality. At the same time, the surprise is critical. If Parmeniscus suddenly saw an even more beautiful woman than he had imagined, then, of course, he would not laugh. The unexpectedness here helps Parmenisk to actively oppose in his consciousness a high aesthetic ideal

(the idea of \u200b\u200bthe beauty of Apollo's mother - Latona) a phenomenon that, while claiming to be ideal, is far from being ideal.

In music, the comedy is revealed through artistically organized alogisms and inconsistencies, as well as through the combination of diverse melodies, which always contain an element of surprise. In aria

Dodona (opera "The Golden Cockerel" by N. A. Rimsky - Korsakov) the combination of primitiveness and sophistication creates a grotesque effect. D. Shostakovich in the opera "The Nose" also uses the features of grotesque counterpoint: the theme is stylized as Bach's recitative - pathetic type of melody and is compared with a primitized gallop.

Instrumental music can express the comic without resorting to

"Extra-musical means", in contrast to musical genres associated with stage action or having a literary program. R. Schumann, according to him, having played Beethoven's Rondo in G major for the first time, began to laugh, as "it is difficult to imagine anything more funny than this joke." He subsequently discovered in Beethoven's papers that the work was entitled Fury over the Lost Penny, Poured Out in Rondo Form. About the finale of Beethoven's Second Symphony, the same Schumann wrote that this is the greatest example of humor in instrumental music. And in F. Schubert's musical moments he heard the tailor's unpaid bills - such everyday annoyance sounded in them. To create a comic effect in music, surprise is often used. So, in one of J. Haydn's London symphonies, there is a joke: a sudden blow of the timpani shakes the audience, pulling it out of dreamy absent-mindedness. In "Waltz with a Surprise" by I. Strauss, the smooth flow of the melody is unexpectedly broken by the clap of a pistol shot. It always elicits a cheerful reaction from the audience. In MP Mussorgsky's Seminarist, mundane thoughts conveyed by a leisurely melody are suddenly disturbed by a tongue twister conveying the memorization of a Latin text. The aesthetic foundation of all these musical and comedic means is the effect of surprise.

A Russian folk tale knows its Parmenis, Princess Nesmeyana.

Bewitched by evil wizards, she forgot how to laugh. All attempts to cheer her up are in vain. V.M. Vasnetsov painted a picture on the theme of this tale. It depicts Nesmeyana sitting on a high throne, immersed in herself, not noticing her surroundings. She lost something very valuable, but she cannot remember what exactly. Around the throne are jesters and courtiers. Skomorokhs, dancers, guslars, storytellers play the harp, balalaikas, dance squatting, “vykomarivayut” with a joke and a joke, sing funny songs, make ridiculous riddles. And behind the open window, full of daring and grandeur, the people laugh. But no one can make the princess laugh. Waves of laughter crash against her throne. He who has risen above the people can become the object of laughter, but not its subject. The kingdom is full of laughter, but the princess does not laugh. For laughter is not enough comic in reality, you also need the ability to perceive it, a sense of humor. Laughter in the minds of the people is not harmless self-indulgence.

To lose the ability to laugh means to lose important properties of the soul. And, probably, there is no misfortune worse than being "not laughing" the ruler of the fairytale - comedic kingdom.

A sense of humor as a kind of aesthetic feeling is always based on high aesthetic ideals. Otherwise, humor turns into skepticism, cynicism, grease, vulgarity, obscenity. Humor presupposes the ability, at least emotionally, in the most general aesthetic form, to grasp the contradictions of reality. Humor is inherent in an aesthetically developed mind capable of quickly, emotionally and critically assessing the essence of a phenomenon, prone to rich and unexpected comparisons and associations.

An active, creative form of a sense of humor is wit. If humor is the ability to perceive comic, then wit is to its creation, creation. Wit is the talent to concentrate, sharpen and aesthetically evaluate the real contradictions of reality so that their comic becomes visible and palpable.

9. Destructive and constructive in laughter.

Comedic laughter is rich in explosive critical content. But in the critical pathos of laughter there is no wasted, Mephistophelian negation.

True wit is human. Comedic laughter is not universal, blindly - merciless denial, destruction. The basis of wit is not the philosophy of universal nihilism, but high aesthetic ideals, in the name of whose assertion criticism is being conducted. Therefore, laughter is a critical force that denies as much as it affirms. Laughter seeks to destroy the existing unjust world and create a new one, fundamentally different from it - ideal. Laughter presupposes not only contrition, but also creative creation. The life-affirming, life-giving, joyful, cheerful aspect of the comic has historical, ideological and aesthetic significance.

The creative, life-giving power of laughter has long been noticed by people. In the most ancient art there were laughter cults, ritual laughter, abusive - parody images of deities. The ritual laughter of the primitive community included both denying and life-affirming principles, it was directed towards condemnation, execution, murder of the imperfect world, and towards its revival on a new basis. In the ancient Egyptian papyrus stored in

Leiden, divine laughter is assigned the role of the creation of the world: “When God laughed, seven gods ruling the world were born ... He burst out laughing a second time - water appeared ...” For the ancient Greeks, laughter was also a life-creator, a creator, a joyful, cheerful folk element. The history of European comedy dates back to the cult of the Greek god Dionysus.

What properties of the comic are exposed at its origins? During the festivities in honor of Dionysus, conventional notions of decency were temporarily lost. An atmosphere of complete relaxedness, distraction from the usual norms was established. A conventional world of unbridled fun, ridicule, frank words and actions arose. It was a celebration of the creative forces of nature, the triumph of the carnal principle in man, which received a comic embodiment. Laughter here contributed to the main purpose of the rite - to ensure the victory of the productive forces of life: they saw life-giving force in laughter and foul language. The same was inherent in the Roman Saturnalia, during which, breaking through the shackles of official ideology, the people, at least for a while, returned to the legendary "golden age" - the kingdom of unrestrained fun. Popular laughter, affirming the joy of being, shading the official perception of the world, sounded in Rome in rituals that combined both glorification and ridicule of the winner, mourning, exaltation and ridicule of the deceased.

In the Middle Ages, popular laughter, opposed to the strict ideology of the church, sounded at carnivals, in comedy acts and processions, at the holidays of "fools", "donkeys", in parody works, in the element of frivolous - square speech, in the witticisms and antics of jesters and "fools ", In everyday life, at parties, with their" bean "kings and queens. Comedy - festive, unofficial life of society - the carnival carries and expresses the folk culture of laughter, embodying the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal renewal. This joyful life affirmation and renewal is one of the most important principles of the comic aesthetics. Laughter not only punishes the imperfection of the world, but also, washing the world with a fresh emotional wave of joy, transforms and renews it. In the medieval carnival festival, the peculiarities of laughter as a denying and at the same time affirming force are exposed and appear in their full and authentic form.

The people's festive and laughable world perception substantially made up for the depressing seriousness and one-sidedness of the official religious and state ideology. MM Bakhtin wrote: “... the carnival does not know the division into performers and spectators. Carnival is not contemplated - they live in it, and everyone lives in it, therefore, according to its idea, it is nationwide. While the carnival is taking place, there is no other life for anyone but the carnival.

There is nowhere to go from it, because the carnival knows no spatial boundaries. During the carnival, one can live only according to its laws, that is, according to the laws of carnival freedom. Carnival has a universal character, it is a special state of the whole world, its revival and renewal, in which everyone is involved. (Bakhtin M. M. Creativity Francois Rabelais and the folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, p. 10).

The Jester is the hero of the carnival, his highest and plenipotentiary representative.

Jesters were comic actors - improvisers, for whom the stage is the whole world, and the comedy act is life itself. They lived without leaving the comedic image, their role and personality coincided. They are art made life and life raised to art; jester is an amphibian that exists freely in two environments at once: real and ideal

(artistic).

The element of folk - festive, "carnival" laughter not only raged on the city square, but also burst into literature, for example, in the genre of parody. Ideas and plots of the official church ideology, as well as the most important literary works of that era, have their own comedic similarities (Liturgy of the Drunkards, parodies of Our Father, parody versions

"Songs and Rolande" and others).

Man is the measure of all things. His nature, taken without any hypocrisy, his natural state and needs are the measure of all values. And this nature, full of physical and spiritual strength, splashing with intelligence and sensuality, is liberated in a cheerful and mischievous, frivolous and rude, daring and cheerful, nationwide, festive carnival laughter. It is universal, that is, it is aimed at everything and everyone

(including the laughing ones themselves): the whole world appears in its laughter aspect, in its cheerful relativity. This laughter is at the same time cheerful, jubilant and mocking, ridiculing; he denies and affirms, executes and resurrects, buries and revives. The people do not exclude themselves from the emerging whole world. This is the essential difference between carnival laughter and satirical laughter. The satirist knows only the denying laughter and puts himself outside the laughed at the phenomenon, opposes himself to it. This destroys the integrity of the laughing aspect of the world, the funny (negative) becomes a private phenomenon.

All comedic laughter tends to be collectivity. In the nationality of carnival laughter, the general principles of the comic aesthetics are most fully manifested. Negation and affirmation are inherent in various forms of the comic. Even in satire, which is sharply critical of the world, denial is based on a positive, life-affirming program - ideals. In carnival laughter in an undifferentiated form, both affirmation and negation, and humorous and satirical beginnings exist, which are gradually isolated into independent types of comic.

10. Types and shades of comic. Measures of laughter.

Humor and satire are the main types of comic. Humor is a friendly, harmless laugh, although not toothless. It improves the phenomenon, cleans it of its shortcomings, helps to reveal itself more fully to everything socially valuable in it. Humor sees in its object some aspects corresponding to the ideal. Often our faults are an extension of our strengths. Such flaws are a target for good-natured humor. The object of humor, while deserving criticism, still generally retains its attractiveness.

It is a different matter when not individual traits are negative, but a phenomenon in its essence, when it is socially dangerous and capable of causing serious damage to society. Here there is no time for friendly laughter, and laughter is born scourging, revealing, satirical. Satire denies, punishes the imperfection of the world in the name of its radical transformation in accordance with the ideal.

Between humor and satire, there is a whole range of shades of laughter. Aesop's mockery, Rabelais' rolling carnival laughter, Swift's caustic sarcasm, Erasmus of Rotterdam's subtle irony, graceful, rationalistically strict satire

Moliere, Voltaire's wise and evil smile, Beranger's sparkling humor, Daumier's caricature, Goya's angry grotesque, prickly romantic irony

Heine, the skeptical irony of Frans, the cheerful humor of M. Twain, the intellectual irony of Shaw, laughter through Gogol's tears, the devastating satire and sarcasm of Saltykov-Shchedrin, the sincere, sad, lyrical humor of Chekhov, the sad and hearty humor of Sholem Aleichem, mischievous, cheerful satire

Hasek, the optimistic satire of Brecht, the popularly cheerful, inexhaustible humor of Sholokhov ... What wealth!

Music also conveys a whole spectrum of shades of laughter. So, in the works

MP Mussorgsky's "Seminarist", "Kalistrat", "Bloch" sound humor, irony, and sarcasm. Laughter through tears is heard in the music of R.K.Schedrin to

To Dead Souls by Gogol. The composer endows Gogol's characters not only with thematic and rhythmic characteristics, but also with timbre:

Manilov is characterized by a flute, Korobochka by a bassoon, Nozdrev by a French horn, and Sobakevich by two double basses.

The variety of shades of laughter (carnival laughter, humor, satire, irony, sarcasm, joke, ridicule, pun) reflects the aesthetic richness of reality. The forms and measure of laughter are determined by both the objective aesthetic properties of the object, and the ideological principles of the artist, his aesthetic attitude to the world, and the national traditions of the artistic culture of the people.

The comic is always nationally colored, appears in a nationally unique form, its national originality is historically changeable.

Let's take a look at the example of France. Many researchers of the comic (Z.

Freud, K. Fischer, T. Lipps) classify puns as the lowest grade of jokes.

However, for France in the 17th - 18th centuries. the pun was the highest form of wit.

Its lightness, brilliance, carefree gaiety aesthetically corresponded to the nature of life of the upper strata of society, which determined the spiritual life of the nation. The ability to pun was highly valued and served as a kind of hallmark of a person. There is a parable: Louis IV wanted to test the wit of a courtier and told him that he, the king, wanted to be the subject of wit himself. In response, the gentleman successfully skalamburied:

"The king is not a plot, the king is not a subject." In French, the word

"Sujet" means both "plot" and "subject". Hence the play on words in the answer. This is a typical example of French gallant wit.

At the end of the 18th century. The Great French Revolution, together with the royal court, swept away the gallant aristocratic pun. The grotesque became dominant in the field of the comic. Its edge bitterly the aristocracy.

The sacred objects of monarchical statehood were defeated, booed and ridiculed from the height of the ideals of universal freedom, equality and brotherhood. However, in the middle of the 19th century. it became clear that these ideals did not come true, although the values \u200b\u200bof the aristocratic past were irrevocably faded. The lack of faith and the lack of clear ideals gave rise to a special kind of wit in France - the good. This merciless mockery of what people are accustomed to worship is a child of social frustration. Lost illusions have become an ordinary story, and in the sphere of humor this was expressed in a joyless, cynical laugh, for which there is nothing reserved or inviolable. A typical example of blagga: "This woman is like a republic, she was beautiful during the time of the empire."

In the 20th century. Gegg emerged - a new form of humor, colored with harmless horror, reflecting the alienation of people in an industrial society. Here's a typical American gegg story.

Two warring drivers led trains full of passengers towards each other. A child runs out onto the canvas with a ball. Trains collide, but ... no disaster occurs, they fly in different directions thanks to the ball. "Buy balls of the company such and such!" The famous shots of Charlie Chaplin's journey between the gears of a huge machine in the movie "New Times" are built on the same principle. Under the influence of American culture, gegg became widespread in the laughter culture of France.

Pun, grotesque, blagg, gegg - forms of French humor, conditioned by the nature of the life of a nation at different stages of its development.

This does not mean, of course, that the grotesque did not exist before, or that the pun died with the fall of the aristocracy. No, we are talking only about the predominant development of certain shades of comic, one or another aesthetics of wit in different periods of the country's development.

The peculiarities of the national identity of the culture of each nation are not so much in their clothes or cuisine, but in the manner of understanding things. This manner of understanding things clearly and vividly manifests itself in the nationally colored forms of the comic.

The comic is nationally unique, and at the same time international and universal features emerge in it. Due to the generality of the laws of social development, the same phenomena often ridicule all peoples with equal irreconcilability.

11. Historicism of the comedic analysis of life.

The essential features of the comic have changed from era to era; both reality itself and the starting position of the comedic analysis of life changed.

In the ancient comedy act, criticism comes from the point of view of the "I".

The starting position is the personal attitude of the mocker.

The developed statehood of Rome inevitably causes the normativity of thinking and assessments, which is expressed in a clear separation of good and evil, positive and negative (for example, the Roman satirist

Juvenal). The starting point of the satirical analysis of life is the normative ideas about the purposeful world order.

In the Renaissance, comedyography takes human nature as a starting point, the idea of \u200b\u200ba person as a measure of the state of the world.

So, in the "Commendable Word of Stupidity" by Erasmus of Rotterdam, stupidity appears not only as an object, but also as a subject of ridicule.

"Normal", "moderate" human stupidity, stupidity "in moderation" judges, executes and ridicules immeasurable, unreasonable, inhuman stupidity.

M. Cervantes reveals the real contradiction in the development of civilization.

On the one hand, it is impossible for every person to start all over again without relying on the previous culture. On the other hand, the dogmatism of culture, its isolation from the practical experience of the people, fanatical adherence to ideas that are petrified and do not correspond to modern reality are also unacceptable. This contradiction can turn into a tragedy and comedy every good undertaking, every idea carried out in such an involuntarily dogmatic way. Over the dreamer Don Quixote, the moral obligations of chivalry gravitate. With all his being, almost like physical suffering, he feels the trouble of the world. As a knight, he considers it his sacred duty and vocation to interfere in everything, "to wander the earth, restoring the truth and avenging offenses."

However, the inconsistency of his actions with reality gives rise to new lies and new grievances for people. Sancho Panza, on the other hand, is alien to any bookish ideas. Popular beliefs and prejudices, folk wisdom and delusions live in it. For him there are no world problems, the universe is himself and his immediate environment.

Sancho Panza does not consider it necessary to interfere with the rational course of life itself. For people, he reserves the right to live freely and without hindrance as they want.

Don Quixote and Sancho Panza are two completely different human principles. However, with all the differences of these people, they have one amazing human quality - selflessness. And in the name of this quality, we forgive the heroes for all their eccentricities and follies, shortcomings and stupidity. Both heroes are therefore not of this world, because they are better than this world engulfed in acquisitiveness. The madman Don Quixote turns out to be more normal than "normal" people, filled with greed and lust for power. Cervantes revealed the artistic possibilities of the comic - the ability to explore the very state of the world, depicting it in a certain section, the ability to give both an artistic concept of the world and a gigantic panorama of life.

In the era of classicism, satire proceeded from abstract moral and aesthetic norms and the object of satirical ridicule was a character who concentrated in himself abstractly - negative traits opposite to virtues. This is how a satire of bigotry, ignorance, and misanthropy (Molière) arises.

Cervantes' tradition of exploring the state of the world is continued in the satire of the Enlightenment. The spearhead of her criticism is directed against the imperfection of the world and human nature. The figure of Gulliver, created by D. Swift, becomes an expression of a new stage of development. He is a man - a mountain to match the giants of the Renaissance. However, Swift does not have all of Gulliver with his strengths and weaknesses, but only his common sense becomes a measure of the satirical analysis of the era. Scourging evil, Swift departs from common sense, since other human qualities are relative: a giant in the land of the Lilliputians, Gulliver turns out to be a midget in the land of giants. Without going beyond the limits of the Enlightenment, the English satirist anticipates the realization of the utopian nature of her ideas.

Describing the school of political projectors, Swift sneers at the impossibility of the ideas of the enlighteners: they were “completely crazy people”, they “offered ways to convince monarchs to choose their favorites from people who are smart, capable and virtuous; train ministers to take the public good into account; to reward people worthy, talented, who have rendered outstanding services to society ... ”(Swift D. Gulliver's Travel.

M., 1947, pp. 378 - 379).

Romanticism revealed the unfavorable state of the world through the unfavorable state of mind, exposing the inner world of a person to artistic research. Irony, this "laughter is an iceberg" with underwater content, turns into the main form of comic. Comedy analysis proceeds from the ideas about the unrealizable perfection of the world, with the help of which the personality is assessed, and, on the other hand, from the ideas about the unrealizable perfection of the person, by which the world is verified. The starting point of criticism is constantly shifting from world to person and from person to world. Irony is replaced by self-irony (for example, in G. Heine), self-irony develops into world skepticism. The world's skepticism of romantic irony is the brother of the world's sorrow of romantic tragedy.

In the 19th century. man's connections with the world deepen and expand. The personality becomes the focus of the broadest social relations. Her spiritual world becomes more complex. The satire of critical realism penetrates the heart of the psychological process. The starting point of criticism is an expanded aesthetic ideal that incorporates popular ideas about life, about a person, about the goals and best forms of social development.

The popular view of the world turns into the original point of view of satire.

Laughter compares its object with humanity, and this is the achievement of realism.

The entire critical trend of Russian art breathes with satirical pathos. NV Gogol sometimes includes a satirical character in the universal with one phrase, compares it with the life of the world. Plyushkin - "a hole in humanity." This is both a characteristic of Plyushkin and a characteristic of humanity, in whose rags such a gap is possible. Gogol's satire, in the words of the writer, put "the Russian face to Russia", the person - face to humanity.

In the satire of Mayakovsky, Zoshchenko, Bulgakov, the comic is directed against everything that is hostile to the unity of the individual and society. In the finale of V. Mayakovsky's play The Bathhouse, the future sends its messenger, the Phosphoric Woman, to the present, the future absorbs all the best from our life, discarding the bad (the time machine rushing people into 2030 spits out Pobedonosikov and other bureaucrats). The very action of the play rushes to the future. In Mayakovsky's satire, the future is the aesthetic ideal, from the standpoint of which all life and its shadow sides are considered, the merits of the best and the vices of the worst people of our time are measured. The image of a time machine, the idea of \u200b\u200baccelerated, compressed time is very modern.

So, from era to era, the starting point of emotional criticism in the comic changes: personal attitude (Aristophanes); ideas about the expediency of the world order (Juvenal); human nature as a measure

(Cervantes, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Rabelais); norm (Moliere); common sense

(Swift); unrealizable perfection (Heine); an ideal that reflects popular ideas about life (Gogol, Saltykov - Shchedrin); point of view of the future (Mayakovsky). In this process, there is a progressive expansion and elevation of the ideal, from the standpoint of which the comic analyzes reality. Relying on an ever wider coverage of reality, on an ever more developed spiritual wealth of the individual, this ideal is democratized, absorbing the popular notions of life.

With all the variety of types, forms, shades of the comic, with all its national and historical originality, its essence is always the same: it expresses a socially perceptible, socially significant contradiction, inconsistency of a phenomenon or one of its sides with high aesthetic ideals.

Comedic laughter punishes the imperfection of the world, purifies and renews a person and affirms the joy of being.

In conclusion, I would like to note the relationship between the tragic and the comic.

Speaking about aesthetic categories, it should be noted that both in life and in artistic creation they are in a complex and flexible relationship and mutual transitions. Take Don Quixote for example

Cervantes. Perhaps there is no such aesthetic quality that would not be in his character. It has sublime, beautiful, and aesthetically negative features, romantic, wonderful and touching. And all these varied colors of the aesthetic spectrum stand out clearly against the background of the tragicomic. The Spanish playwright Lope de Vega noted the legitimacy of combining the tragic and the comic in drama, since in reality these principles are "mixed".

It is no coincidence that Charlie Chaplin's genius was expressed in tragicomic forms that most fully correspond to the world in which he lives. And it is no coincidence that all the great artistic values \u200b\u200bby which our descendants will judge our era and its art are full of tragic or comedic pathos (the works of Gorky, Sholokhov, Mayakovsky,

Brecht, Faulkner, Hemingway, Rolland, Eisenstein, Picasso).

Human interaction with the real world is complex and diverse.

Circumstances are fluid and changeable, and a person, remaining himself, in every situation is equal and not equal to himself, he is the same and at the same time different.

It is good in some respects, comic in some respects, tragic in others, etc. To reveal this dialectical interaction of character and circumstances by means of art means to reflect life aesthetically multifaceted, volumetric, in its various aesthetic properties.

Literature:
1. Sollertinsky I. I. Selected articles about music. L. - M., 1946
2. Mayakovsky V. Selected works, volume 2. M., 1953
3. Hume D. About the tragedy. "Questions of Literature". M., 1967
4. Ancient Indian philosophy. M., 1963
5. Chantepie de la Saussay. An Illustrated History of Religions, Volume 2.

SPb.
6. Miguel Leon - Portilla. Nagua philosophy. Research of sources. M.,

1961 g.
7. Jaspers K. About the tragic. Munich, 1954
8. Lessing G. E. Selected Works. M., 1953
9. Greek tragedy. M., 1956
10. Reader on the history of Western European theater, volume 1. M., 1953
11. Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy. M., 1961.
12. Shakespeare W. Hamlet. M., 1964
13. Saltykov - Shchedrin. Complete works, volume 13.L., 1936
14. Herzen A. I. Collected works in thirty volumes, volume 14. M., 1958
15. Jean Paul. Preschool aesthetics. Hamburg, 1804
16. Herzen AI About art. M., 1954
17. Chapek K. Stories, essays, plays. M., 1954
18. Montesquieu C. Selected works. M., 1955
19. Swift D. Gulliver's Travel. M., 1947
20. Borev Yu. Aesthetics. M., 1975
21. Borev Yu. Aesthetics. M., 1988

22. Divnenko O. V. Aesthetics. M., 1995

Tutoring

Need help exploring a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Send a request with the indication of the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Tragic is a philosophical category in art that characterizes the emergence of suffering and experiences of the heroes of works as a result of their free will or the prescriptions of fate. The viewer empathized and sympathized with the hero of the tragedy. In a general sense, the tragic is characterized by the struggle between the moral ideal and objective reality. Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

The Greeks managed to preserve the amusement of their tragedies, although the characters and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events. The meaning of the tragedy was the character of the hero's behavior. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are well known. The hero of the ancient tragedy is unable to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, what should happen is realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in the tragedy of Sophocles "Oedipus the King". Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy of Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, on pain of death, forbids the bury of her brother, who fought against Thebes. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. The Renaissance era in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period opened the state of the world, confirmed the activity of man and the freedom of his will. In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the personality. The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life.

Tragic art reveals the social meaning of human life and shows that human immortality is realized in the immortality of the people. An important topic of the tragedy is “man and history”. The character of the tragic hero is verified by the very course of history, by its laws. The theme of the responsibility of the individual to history is deeply disclosed in "The Quiet Don" by MA Sholokhov. The character of his hero is contradictory: he is now shallow, then deepened by inner torments, then tempered by difficult trials. His fate is tragic. In music, a new type of tragic symphony was developed by D. D. Shostakovich. If in P. I. Tchaikovsky's symphonies rock always invades the life of the individual from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, Shostakovich has such a confrontation only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil that interrupts the calm flow of life (the theme of the invasion in the first part of Seventh symphony).

Abstract on the topic Tragic, its manifestation in art and in life free download

Section: Ethics
Job type: essay

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… ..3

1. Tragedy - irreparable loss and assertion of immortality ……………… ..4

2. General philosophical aspects of the tragic ………………. …………………… ... 5

3. Tragic in art ………………………………………………………… .7

4. Tragic in life …………………………………………………………… ..12

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… .16

References ……………………………………………………………… 18

INTRODUCTION

Evaluating phenomena aesthetically, a person determines the extent of his dominance over the world. This measure depends on the level and nature of the development of society, its production. The latter reveals one or another meaning for a person of the natural properties of objects, determines their aesthetic properties. This explains that the aesthetic manifests itself in different forms: the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, the base, the tragic, the comic, etc.

The expansion of human social practice entails an expansion of the range of aesthetic properties and aesthetically valued phenomena.

There is no era in the history of mankind that was not saturated with tragic events. Man is mortal, and every person living a conscious life cannot, in one way or another, not comprehend his attitude to death and immortality. Finally, great art, in its philosophical reflections on the world, always internally gravitates towards a tragic theme. Throughout the history of world art passes as one of the general themes of the tragic. In other words, both the history of society, and the history of art, and the life of an individual, in one way or another, come into contact with the problem of the tragic. All this determines its importance for aesthetics.

1. TRAGEDY - INCREDIBLE LOSS AND STATEMENT OF IMMORTALITY

The 20th century is a century of the greatest social upheavals, crises, and stormy changes that create the most complicated and tense situations in one or another point of the world. Therefore, a theoretical analysis of the problem of the tragic for us is introspection and understanding of the world in which we live.

In the art of different nations, tragic death turns into resurrection, and sorrow turns into joy. For example, ancient Indian aesthetics expressed this pattern through the concept of "samsara", which means the cycle of life and death, the reincarnation of a deceased person into another living being, depending on the nature of his life. The reincarnation of souls among the ancient Indians was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200baesthetic improvement, an ascent to the more beautiful. The Vedas, the oldest monument of Indian literature, affirmed the beauty of the afterlife and the joy of going into it.

Since ancient times, human consciousness could not come to terms with non-existence. As soon as people began to think about death, they affirmed immortality, and in nonexistence people gave a place to evil and accompanied it there with laughter.

Tragedy is a mournful song about irreparable loss, a joyful hymn to human immortality. It is this deep nature of the tragic that manifests itself when the feeling of sorrow is resolved by joy ("I am happy"), death - by immortality.

2. GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF THE TRAGIC

A person leaves life irrevocably. Death is the transformation of living into non-living. However, the deceased remains to live in the living: culture keeps everything that has passed, it is the extragenetic memory of mankind. H. Heine said that under each tombstone is the history of a whole world that cannot leave without a trace.

Comprehending the death of a unique individuality as an irreparable collapse of the whole world, tragedy at the same time asserts the strength, the infinity of the universe, despite the departure of a finite being from it. And in this very finite being, tragedy finds immortal features that make the personality akin to the universe, the finite - to the infinite. Tragedy is a philosophical art that poses and solves the higher metaphysical problems of life and death, realizes the meaning of being, analyzes the global problems of its stability, eternity, infinity, despite the constant change.

In tragedy, as Hegel believed, death is not only destruction. It also means preserving in a transformed form that which must perish in a given form. Suppressed by the instinct of self-preservation, Hegel opposes the idea of \u200b\u200bliberation from the "slave consciousness", the ability to sacrifice his life for the sake of higher goals. The ability to comprehend the idea of \u200b\u200bendless development for Hegel is the most important characteristic of human consciousness.

In comprehending tragic situations in world art culture, two extreme positions have emerged: existentialist and Buddhist.

Existentialism has made death a central issue in philosophy and art. German philosopher K. Jaspers emphasizes that knowledge about a person is tragic knowledge. In his book On the Tragic, he notes that the tragic begins where a person takes all his capabilities to the extreme, knowing that he will perish. It is, as it were, the self-realization of an individual at the cost of his own life. “Therefore, in tragic knowledge, it is essential what a person suffers from and because of what he perishes, what he takes upon himself, in the face of what reality and in what form he betrays his being”. Jaspers proceeds from the fact that the tragic hero carries both his own happiness and his own death in himself.

A tragic hero is a bearer of something beyond the framework of individual existence, a bearer of power, principle, character, demon. Tragedy shows a person in his greatness, free from good and evil, writes Jaspers, substantiating this position with reference to Plato's idea that neither good nor evil flows from a small character, and a great nature is capable of both great evil and great good.

Tragedy exists where forces collide, each of which considers itself to be true. On this basis, Jaspers believes that truth is not one, that it is split, and tragedy reveals this.

Thus, existentialists absolutize the intrinsic value of a person and emphasize its alienation from society, which leads their concept to a paradox: the death of a person ceases to be a social problem. A person who is left alone with the universe, does not feel humanity around him, seizes the horror of the inevitable finitude of being. She is rejected from people and in fact turns out to be absurd, and her life is devoid of meaning and value.

For Buddhism, a person, dying, turns into another being, he equates death with life (a person, dying, continues to live, therefore death does not change anything). In either case, virtually any tragedy is removed.

The death of a person takes on a tragic sound only where a person, possessing self-worth, lives in the name of people, their interests become the content of his life. In this case, on the one hand, there is a unique individual originality and value of the individual, and on the other, the dying hero finds continuation in the life of society. Therefore, the death of such a hero is tragic and gives rise to a feeling of irrevocable loss of human individuality (and hence the grief), and at the same time, the idea of \u200b\u200bcontinuing the life of the individual in humanity arises (and hence the motive of joy).

The source of the tragic is specific social contradictions - collisions between a socially necessary, urgent demand and the temporary practical impossibility of its implementation. The inevitable lack of knowledge and ignorance often become the source of the greatest tragedies. The tragic is the sphere of comprehension of world-historical contradictions, the search for a way out for humanity. This category reflects not just the misfortune of a person caused by private malfunctions, but the disasters of mankind, some fundamental imperfections of life that affect the fate of the individual.

3. TRAGIC IN ART

Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

For example, an open course of action is inherent in Greek tragedy. The Greeks managed to preserve the amusement of their tragedies, although the characters and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events. The audience was well aware of the plots of ancient myths, on the basis of which tragedies were mainly created. The amusement of Greek tragedy was firmly grounded in the logic of action. The meaning of the tragedy was the character of the hero's behavior. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are well known. And this is the naivety, freshness and beauty of ancient Greek art. Such a course of action played a great artistic role, enhancing the tragic emotion of the viewer.

The hero of the ancient tragedy is unable to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, what should happen is realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in the tragedy of Sophocles "Oedipus the King". By his own will, consciously and freely, he searches for the causes of the misfortunes that have fallen on the heads of the inhabitants of Thebes. And when it turns out that the "investigation" threatens to turn against the main "investigator" and that the culprit of the misfortune of Thebes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father by the will of fate and married his mother, he does not stop the "investigation", but brings it to the end. Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy of Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, on pain of death, forbids the bury of her brother, who fought against Thebes. The law of clan relations, which is expressed in the need to bury the body of a brother, whatever the cost, acts equally in relation to both sisters, but Antigone becomes a tragic hero because she fulfills this need in her free actions.

The Greek tragedy is heroic.

The purpose of the ancient tragedy is catharsis. The feelings depicted in the tragedy purify the viewer's feelings.

In the Middle Ages, the tragic appears not as heroic, but as martyr. Its purpose is consolation. In medieval theater, the passive beginning was emphasized in the actor's interpretation of the image of Christ. Sometimes the actor "got used" so strongly to the image of the crucified that he himself was not far from death.

Medieval tragedy is foreign to the concept of catharsis. This is not a tragedy of purification, but a tragedy of consolation. It is characterized by logic: you feel bad, but they (the heroes, or rather, the martyrs of the tragedy) are better than you, and they are worse off than you, so take comfort in your sufferings by the fact that there are sufferings that are bitter, and people have more pain, even less, than you deserving it. The consolation of the earth (you are not the only one who suffers) is enhanced by the consolation of the otherworldly (there you will not suffer, and you will be rewarded as you deserve).

If in ancient tragedy the most unusual things happen quite naturally, then in medieval tragedy the supernaturalness of what is happening occupies an important place.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the majestic figure of Dante rises. Dante has no doubt about the need for the eternal torment of Francesca and Paolo, who, with their love, violated the moral foundations of their century and the monolith of the existing world order, shook, transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky. And at the same time, the "Divine Comedy" lacks supernaturalism, magic. For Dante and his readers, the geography of hell is absolutely real and the hellish whirlwind that carries the lovers is real. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal, which was inherent in ancient tragedy. And it is this return to antiquity on a new basis that makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance.

Medieval man explained the world by God. The man of modern times strove to show that the world is the cause of himself. In philosophy, this was expressed in the classical thesis of Spinoza about nature as the cause of itself. In art, this principle was embodied and expressed by Shakespeare half a century earlier. For him, the whole world, including the sphere of human passions and tragedies, does not need any otherworldly explanation, he himself is at its core.

Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. From the characters themselves, action is born. The fatal words: "His name is Romeo: he is the son of Montague, the son of your enemy" - did not change Juliet's relationship to her beloved. The only measure and driving force behind her actions is herself, her character, her love for Romeo.

The Renaissance era in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period opened the state of the world, confirmed the activity of man and the freedom of his will. At the same time, the tragedy of an unregulated personality arose. The only regulation for a person was the first and last commandment of the Telem monastery: "Do what you want" (Rabelais. "Gargartua and Pantagruel"). However, freed from medieval religious morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor. Shakespeare's heroes (Othello, Hamlet) are relaxed and not limited in their actions. And the actions of the forces of evil (Iago, Claudius) are just as free and not regulated by anything.

The hopes of the humanists that the individual, having got rid of medieval restrictions, rationally and in the name of good, will dispose of their freedom turned out to be illusory. The utopia of an unregulated personality has in fact turned into its absolute regulation. In France, XVII century. this regulation manifested itself: in the sphere of politics - in the absolutist state, in the sphere of science and philosophy - in the teachings of Descartes about the method that introduces human thought into the channel of strict rules, in the sphere of art - in classicism. The tragedy of utopian absolute freedom is replaced by the tragedy of the real absolute normative conditioning of the individual.

In the art of romanticism (G. Heine, F. Schiller, J. Byron, F. Chopin) the state of the world is expressed through the state of mind. Disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the disbelief in social progress caused by it give rise to world sorrow characteristic of romanticism. Romanticism realizes that the universal principle may not have a divine, but a diabolical nature and is capable of carrying evil. In the tragedies of Byron ("Cain"), the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle with it are affirmed. Lucifer is the embodiment of such a universal evil. Cain cannot come to terms with any restrictions on the freedom and power of the human spirit. But evil is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate it from life even at the cost of his own death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero, through his struggle, creates oases of life in the desert, where evil reigns.

The art of critical realism revealed the tragic discord between personality and society. One of the greatest tragic works of the 19th century. - "Boris Godunov" by A. Pushkin. Godunov wants to use power for the benefit of the people. But on the way to power, he commits evil - he kills the innocent prince Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of alienation, and then anger. Pushkin shows that you cannot fight for a people without a people. Human destiny is the people's destiny; the deeds of the individual are for the first time compared with the good of the people. Such problems are the product of a new era.

The same feature is inherent in the opera and musical tragic images of M.P. Mussorgsky. His operas "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" brilliantly embody Pushkin's formula of tragedy about the fusion of human and national destinies. For the first time, a people appeared on the opera stage, inspired by a single idea of \u200b\u200bthe struggle against slavery, violence and arbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people set off the tragedy of Tsar Boris's conscience. For all his good intentions, Boris remains alien to the people and secretly fears the people, who sees it as the cause of their misfortunes. Mussorgsky deeply developed specific musical means of conveying tragic life content: musical and dramatic contrasts, vivid thematicism, mournful intonations, dark tonality and dark timbres of orchestration.

Job type: essay

Levandovsky, A.A., Shchetinov, Yu.A. Russian history. XX - early XXI century. - 2003. - p.21-24
Orlov, A.S., Georgiev, V.A., Polunov, A.Yu., Tereshchenko, Yu.Ya. Fundamentals of the course of the history of Russia. - 1997 .-- p. 373-377, 396-404
Chudakova, N.V., Gromov, A.V. I get to know the world. History. - 1998 .-- p. 430-431
Romanovs. Dynasty in novels. Nicholas II. - 1995 .-- p. 5-7
Mosolov, A.A., At the court of the last Russian emperor. - 1993 .-- p.109

Tragedy of personality, family, people in A.A. Akhmatova's poem Requiem

Job type: composition

1937 year. A terrible page in our history. I remember the names: O. Mandelstam, V. Shalamov, A. Solzhenitsyn ... Dozens, thousands of names. And behind them are crippled destinies, hopeless grief, fear, despair, oblivion. But human memory is strangely arranged. She keeps the most intimate, dear. And terrible ...
\\ "White Clothes \\" V. Dudintsev, \\ "Children of the Arbat \\" A. Rybakov, \\ "By the Right of Memory \\" A. Tvardovsky, \\ "The Problem of Bread \\" V. Podmogilny, \\ "The Gulag Archipelago \\" A. Solzhenitsyn - these and others p We angered God, sinned:
Lord of his regicide
We named.
A. Pushkin, \\ "Boris Godunov \\"
Pushkin conceived \\ "Boris Godunov \\" as a historical and political tragedy. The drama \\ "Boris Godunov \\" opposed the romantic tradition. As a political tragedy, it was addressed to contemporary issues: the role of the people in history and the nature of tyrannical power.
If in \\ "Eugene Onegin \\" a slender composition is

The people in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin Boris Godunov

Job type: composition

The tragedy \\ "Boris Godunov \\" was written by Pushkin in 1825. Pushkin was always worried about the reasons for the collapse of the revolutionary and national liberation movements (in Spain, Italy, Greece). His attention was attracted by such historical figures as Stepan Razin and Emelyan Pugachev. In 1824, Pushkin was greatly interested in the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries, when the Russian state was ruled by Boris Godunov, and later by False Dmitry. Studying this material, Pushkin decided to write about

In antiquitytragedy is the pinnacle of art. In ancient tragedy, the heroes are often given knowledge of the future thanks to the divinations of oracles, prophetic dreams and warnings from the gods. The choir in the Greek tragedy sometimes informed both the actors and the audience the will of the gods or predicted further events. In addition, the audience knew well the plots of the myths on the basis of which the tragedies were created. The amusement of the Greek tragedy, the audience's interest in the course of their action was based not so much on unexpected plot twists, but on the logic of the action. The essence of the tragedy is not in the fatal outcome, but in the behavior of the hero. He acts in the mainstream of necessity and is unable to prevent the inevitable, but it is not the necessity that draws him to the denouement, but he, by his active actions, realizes his tragic fate. Such is the title character of Sophocles' tragedy "Oedipus the King". He voluntarily seeks out the causes of the disasters that befell the Share of the inhabitants of Thebes. The "investigation" turns against the "investigator": it turns out that the culprit of the city's misfortunes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father and married his mother. However, even coming close to this truth, he stops “inquiring”. The hero of the ancient tragedy

terminates "inquiries". The hero of the ancient tragedy acts consistently and goes to the end even when he understands the inevitability of death. He is not a doomed being, but a hero who acts freely in accordance with the imperatives of his "I", within the framework of the necessary

emu, dictated by the will ^ of the gods.So, in Aeschylus, Prometheus performs a feat in the name of people and pays for the transfer of fire to people. The chorus praises Prometheus:

You dared with your heart, you will never yield to Cruel troubles.

(Greek tragedy.

M., 1956, p. 61).

The purpose of the ancient tragedy is catharsis: the purification of the viewer's feelings through fear and compassion. A diamond can only be polished with a diamond, for it is the hardest substance on earth. Feelings can only be polished with feelings, for this is the most subtle and complex substance in the universe. An ancient tragedy carries a heroic concept of man and purifies the viewer.

In the Middle Ages- the essence of the tragic not heroism, but martyrdom;the central character here is the martyr. This is a tragedy not purification, but consolation, alien to catharsis.Thus, the legend of Tristan and Isolde ends with an appeal to all unhappy in passion: "May they find here consolation in impermanence and injustice, in vexation and adversity, in all the sufferings of love." The logic of a medieval tragedy: you will be comforted, because there are more bitter sufferings, and the torment is heavier than yours in people, even less than you deserve it. This is the will of God. In the subtext of the tragedy lived the promise of otherworldly justice. Earthly consolation (you are not the only one who suffers) is multiplied by heavenly consolation (you will be rewarded according to your deserts). In ancient tragedy, the most unusual things happen naturally, in medieval - supernatural: wonderfuleverything that happens.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and Renaissancedante rises. On his interpretation of the tragic lie the deep shadows of the Middle Ages and the solar reflections of the hopes of the New Age shine. Dante still has a strong medieval motive of martyrdom: Francesca and Paolo, who with their love transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky and shook the monolith of the existing world order, are doomed to eternal suffering. However, The Divine Comedy lacks the second pillar of medieval tragedy - the supernatural

veracity, magic. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal (detailed geography of hell, for example), as in the ancient tragedy. This return to antiquity on a new basis makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance.

Dante's sympathy for Francesca and Paolo is more frank than that of the unnamed author of the tale of Tristan and Isolde for his heroes, who also fell in love with each other in violation of generally accepted norms. In "Tristan and Isolde" the attitude towards the heroes is contradictory: either their behavior is subjected to moral censure, then there are extenuating circumstances for the offense (the heroes, they say, have drunk a magic potion). Dante, on the other hand, directly, openly, proceeding from the motives of his heart, sympathizes with Paolo and Francesca, although he considers their doomed to torment fair. Their tragedy is touching and martyr's, not heroic:

The spirit spoke, tormented by terrible oppression, Another wept, and the torment of their hearts covered My brow with mortal sweat; And I fell like a dead man falls. (Dante Alighieri. Divine Comedy. Ad. M., 1961. S. 48).

The Middle Ages gave everything a divine explanation. Renaissance and Baroquelooking for the cause of the world and its tragedies in the world itself. In philosophy, this was expressed in the classical thesis of Spinoza about nature as causa sui (reason for itself). Earlier this principle was reflected in art. The world and its tragedies do not need an otherworldly explanation; they are based not on fate or providence, not magic or evil spells, but on its own nature. Show the world as it is - this is the motto of modern times. Shakespeare's heroes - Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. Their actions are generated by their characters. The fatal words: "His name is Omeo: ° n son of Montague, son of your enemy" - did not change Juliet's relationship to her beloved. It is not constrained by any external regulations. The only measure and driving force behind her actions is herself, her love for Romeo.

Renaissance and Baroque art exposed the social nature of the tragic conflict, affirmed the activity of man and the freedom of his will. It would seem that the tragedy of Hamlet is in the misfortunes that befell him. But similar ones fell upon Laertes. Why isn't he perceived as a tragic hero? Laertes is passive, and Hamlet himself, deliberately meets unfavorable circumstances. He courageously, nobly and philosophically chooses a fight with the "sea of \u200b\u200btroubles". It is this choice that is discussed in the famous monologue: # £

To be or not to be, that is the question. Worthy of JH

Resign ourselves to the blows of fate

Or must we resist

And in mortal combat with a whole sea of \u200b\u200btroubles

End them? Die. Forget it.

(Shakespeare. 1964, p. 111).

The show owns a playful aphorism: the smart adapt to the world, the fools try to adapt the world to themselves, so they change the world and make history fools. Actually, this aphorism in a paradoxical form expresses the Hegelian concept of tragic guilt. The prudent person acts according to common sense and is guided by the established norms and prejudices of his time. The tragic hero acts freely, out of the need for self-fulfillment, choosing the direction and goals of his actions, regardless of the circumstances. In his character, the reason for his death. The tragic denouement lies in the personality itself. External circumstances can only come into conflict with the character of the tragic hero and provoke his activity. However, the reason for his actions is in himself. Consequently, it carries its own doom within itself.According to Hegel, this is tragic guilthero. Hegel stressed the ability of tragedy to explore state of the world.In "Hamlet" it is defined as follows: "the link of times has fallen apart", "the whole world is a prison, and Denmark is the worst of the dungeons", "an age dislocated from the joints."

The image of a global flood has a deep meaning. There are eras when history is overflowing. Then for a long time and slowly she enters the channel and continues that

hurried, then stormy current into the future. Happy is the poet, in the time when history overflows the shores, having touched the feathers of his men of honor (“blessed is he who visited this world in its fatal mine-i”): this poet will inevitably touch the history. in his about creativity, one way or another, at least some of the essential aspects of the deep historical process will be reflected. In such an era, art becomes a mirror of history. Analysis of the state of the world- shakespearean tradition. It has become the principle of modern tragedy.

In ancient tragedy, necessity was realized through the free action of the hero. The Middle Ages transformed necessity into the arbitrariness of providence. The Renaissance revolted against necessity and against the arbitrariness of Providence and affirmed the freedom of the individual, which inevitably turned into its arbitrariness. The Renaissance failed to develop all the forces of society, not in spite of the individual, but through her and all the forces of the individual - through society and for its good. The hopes of humanists for the creation of a harmonious, universal person were scorched by the chilling breath of self-interest in the approaching era of bourgeoisness. The tragedy of the collapse of these hopes was felt by the most perspicacious artists: Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare. The Renaissance era gave rise to the tragedy of an unregulated personality. The only regulation for man was the commandment of the Telem monastery: "Do what you want" (Rabelais. "Gargantua and Pantagruel"). However, freed from the shackles of medieval morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor. The coming era of individualism transformed the Rabelaisian slogan “do what you want” into the Hobbesian “war of all against all”. In Shakespeare, not only heroes inspired by the ideal (Othello, Hamlet), but also ge-Roi, bringing evil (Iago, Claudius), are free in their actions.

Where are those social values \u200b\u200bthat

turn Shakespeare's heroes into tragic characters, into

a Racters who are able to "continue after themselves" are

and Giving the right to immortality? In what. public

"Otherness" not only of Romeo and Hamlet, but also of Macbeth after

death of each of them? Indeed, without this "otherness" there is no

a tragedy that sings a hymn to human immortality. But what kind of immortality can we talk about in relation to Macbeth, who blew up all human norms. After all, immortality | man - this is the continuation of the hero after death in humanity. However, the Renaissance, having destroyed the ascetic norms limiting the personality, turned man into a social measure of everything. The social principle was introduced into the person himself. The titanic development of human individuality itself was a manifestation of the social principle. The literary character of the Shekspeer heroes became cosmically individual, and in] this brightness, originality, power was its value. This explains the tragedy of Macbeth. The characters became so powerful, so large-scale, that their deeds were irreplaceable, and death the hero became a tragedy, because his unique individuality, in which the colossal forces of the human spirit were released, could not be compensated by anything or anyone. With the death of the hero, huge wealth, accumulated and concentrated in his character, left the world. The character of the hero was the whole Universe, and the death of the hero sounded like an irreparable cosmic catastrophe.

In Shakespeare's tragedies, the source of the hero's immortality is in his power, uniqueness, in the colossal character of his character, and the meaning of a person's life is in the release of his boundless potential spiritual energy.

In the era of classicismfrom an indissoluble and previously undivided unity, tragedy isolated the social and individual principles of the hero as independent principles. Tragedy reveals the meaning of life.For the hero of the era of classicism, the meaning of life is bifurcated: it is in both personal and social happiness of a person. But both of these plans are difficult to combine. And therefore, true happiness is practically unattainable. A tragic discord of feeling and duty reigns. You should always sacrifice one side of life for the sake of the triumph of the other. The social side, the duty for classicism is more important than the personal. The latter is obliged to obey the first. But at the same time personal happiness disappears, feeling dies, love is sacrificed. From the meaning of life

only half remains. The contradiction is tragically insoluble.

e what is the immortality of this hero? In the tragedy of classicism, the hero at any cost opens up space for the social principle in his life. In a triumph of honor, in a triumph of public duty- continuation of the tragic hero in humanity.And in the fact that duty is a category of reason and morality; and the fact that duty is personified in an absolute monarch reveals the next stage in the artistic and ideological development of mankind - educational ideology with its concept of an enlightened monarch. In classic tragedy, this idea is present rolled up, like a leaf in a bud.

The hopes of the humanists that a person, having got rid of medieval restrictions, rationally, in the name of good, will dispose of his freedom, turned out to be illusory. The utopia of an unregulated Renaissance personality in the era of classicism turned into its absolute regulation: in politics - an absolutist state, in philosophy - Descartes' doctrine of a method that introduces thinking into the mainstream of strict rules, in art - classicism and its norms. The tragedy of absolute freedom is replaced by the tragedy of the absolute normality of the individual. Duty in relation to the state becomes a limitation of the individual, whose passions and desires are not reconciled with regulation. In the tragedies of classicism (Cornel, Racine), this conflict of duty and personal aspirations of a person becomes central.

Classic tragedy shows the impossibility of the undivided and harmless domination of the social principle over the individual. Public duty does not allow the individual beginning in the personality to develop into selfishness, and the simmering passions do not allow the hero to dissolve in the public and lose his originality. A moving balance of tragically bifurcated social and individual principles arises in the character of the hero, and in the priority of the public. Dynamic balance is the essence of life. Classic tragedy provides historically unique answers to questions about meaning

life, the relationship between life, death and immortality, the value of the individual. The originality of these answers is the originality of a classicist tragedy.

The art of romanticism (Heine, Schiller, Byron, Chopin)expressed the state of the world through the state of mind. Disappointment with the results of the Great French Revolution and, as a consequence, disillusionment with social progress gives rise to romanticism with its world grief and the realization that the universal origin may not be divine, but diabolical in nature. In Byron's tragedy "Cain", the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle against it are affirmed. Cain cannot come to terms with the limitations of the freedom of the human spirit. The meaning of his life- opposition to eternal evil,whose universal incarnation is Lucifer. Evil is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate it from life even at the cost of his own death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero does not allow to establish the undivided domination of evil on earth, he creates oases of hope in the desert, where evil reigns.

Critical realism revealed the tragic rift between personality and society. In Pushkin's tragedy Boris Godu; new ”the title character wants to use power for the good of the people. But on the way to power, he committed evil - the murder of the innocent Tsarevich Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of alienation, and then anger Pushkinshows that there is no evil for good, with a barely taint, and all the more, it is impossible to achieve universal happiness with the blood of a child. Boris's powerful character is reminiscent of Shakespeare's heroes. However, Shakespeare has personality at the center of the tragedy. Pushkin has a human destiny - a destiny for his own; the deeds of the individual are for the first time linked with the life of the people. The people are both the protagonist of the tragedy of history and the supreme judge of the actions of its heroes.

Opera MussorgskyBoris Godunov and Khovanshchina embody Pushkin's formula for the fusion of human and national destinies. For the first time on the opera stage appeared a people in distress, rejecting violence andarbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people pushed aside the tragedy of Tsar Boris's conscience. Boris's good thoughts

are embodied in life, he remains alien to the people, secretly fears him and sees in him the reason for his failures. Mussorgsky developed musical means of conveying the tragic: musical and dramatic contrasts, bright thematicism, mournful intonations, gloomy tonality and dark timbres of orchestration (bassoons in low register in Boris's monologue "The Soul Grieves ...").

Beethoven in the Fifth Symphony philosophically developed the tragic theme as a theme of rock. This theme was continued in the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies Chaikovsky.He also refers to the theme of tragic love in the musical fantasy "Francesca da Rimini", where "happiness is crushed by fate, and despair sounds in the music, as in the Fourth Symphony. However, the hero finds support in the power of the eternal life of the people. In Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony, intense tragedy" ends with the painful sadness of parting with life.Tchaikovsky's tragic expresses the contradiction between human aspirations and life obstacles, between the infinity of creative impulses and the finiteness of the personality's being.

In critical realism of the 19th century. (Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky)the non-tragic character becomes the hero of tragic situations. In life, tragedy has become an "ordinary story", and its hero - an alienated, "private and partial" (Hegel) person. And therefore tragedy as a genre disappears, but as an element it penetrates into all kinds and genres of art, capturing the intolerance of the discord between man and society.

Realism of the XX century. (Hemingway, Faulkner, Frank, Hesse, Belle, Fellini, Antonioni, Gershwin, Bulgakov, Platonov, Andrei Tarkovsky)revealed the tragedy of man's aspirations to overcome discord with the world, the tragedy of the search for the lost meaning of life.

The brothers grimm author. Tales of the brothers grimm. Read the Brothers Grimm fairy tales online

Leo Tolstoy all the best tales and stories