Each era is unique with its own particular culture. Likewise, the art of India has been constantly changing over the centuries. In this country, such as painting, architecture and sculpture developed.
Formation of art in the country of India
Indian art has its roots in prehistoric cave paintings. In general, the elements are pure reflections of the mental attitudes of this country, which makes them more introspective. One of them is the idea of \u200b\u200byoga about the importance of detachment from all distracting external influences and fleeting emotions. Therefore, the surrounding reality plays a secondary role in the country of India. The art of India is distinguished by the fact that the main focus in iconography is on the religious and the metaphysical, even when elements of modern life are borrowed in ornaments, costumes, etc.
Features of the image of the surrounding world
The question of the environment should be considered in the context of the aesthetics of this country, which does not accept superficial naturalism, realism or illusion. What really matters is the "creation of truth", which assumes India is very simple, because nature itself was created complex and intelligent, and only thanks to signs and symbols it became possible to express it. This is why symbols play a crucial role here. Simplicity from this point of view does not carry any derogatory meaning, which could be observed in decadent art. It boils down to the development of a number of techniques for expressing the true meaning of objects or objects that the artist and sculptor have captured.
Methods of depicting the surrounding reality in art always, to a greater or lesser extent, reflect the modern views of a particular era. Here we are not talking about perspective, but the techniques and means serving to convey ideas to viewers who were different at different periods of time, from an aesthetic point of view, did not have any advantages over others in the country of India. Indian art is often very symbolic, especially in terms of conveying the nature of things.
Art of the 2nd century BC. - III century AD
In ancient art, during the II century. BC. - III century AD, you can find a certain emphasis on Such artists, such as Amaravati, tried to object to the surrounding reality. In their search through symbols, they sought to present not only episodes from the life of the Buddha, but also, for example, the worship of Yaksha and trees, which was very common among the people at that time. But not all art was devoted to aspects of everyday life. Artists always strive to emphasize that external phenomena of nature can only evoke limited feelings. Nature, in their opinion, is rich in deep symbolic meanings. The art of ancient India is rich in traces of cosmology, which cannot be understood without reference to ancient Indian literature. Such features can be found up to the 6th century in the paintings of Ajanta and Bagh.
Indian culture VI - X centuries.
With the beginning of the Gupta era, new elements began to appear. Artists lost interest in man, but began to show it to the gods and their environment. And even with such a shift in emphasis, they still paid attention to the mundane, albeit to a lesser extent. The depiction of nature has become more stereotypical. In the Vishnu-dharmottara-purana written during this period, you can find a special section on painting, which talks about how conventions should be observed. In the following centuries in art, we can mainly observe only themes dedicated to the gods, and very little - current life at that time.
Art of the X - XIV centuries.
After the 10th century in Indian painting, as well as in Buddhist manuscripts, very few elements of nature and modern life can be found. Ignoring their surroundings, the artists concentrated exclusively on Buddhist gods, goddesses and Mandalas. Since they had a limited space at their disposal, the painters were content with depicting gods and goddesses. This fills the manuscripts they illustrated with magical powers, making them an object of admiration for admirers in the country of India. Indian art is very distinctive. The only external influences that the artists reckoned with were the beliefs of Tantric Buddhism. They were not worried about either nature or social conditions of that period.
Art of India XIV - XVI centuries
By the end of the 14th century, artists had become a little more interested in the themes of the surrounding social life. In their works, one can notice the manifestation of Muslim stereotypes in the depiction of all foreigners who figured in them. This suggests that they had certain opinions about the Turks, who ruled the northern and western parts of India at that time. In their works, landscapes were portrayed as a separate part of the composition, and not only as a background to specific scenes.
The visual arts of India provide a much more visual representation of the life of people than any other literary sources of the time. This interest still persisted in the 16th century. Here for the first time appear, for example, images of specific rural residents, farmers and shepherds, as well as women involved in daily domestic life. Nature has also become much more represented, with full-scale illustrations of forests and wildlife. Indian art began to be filled with new meanings.
Excavations carried out in Takshashila and other settlements in northwestern India have unearthed jewelery made from precious stones expertly set in gold using a technique similar to that still used by Indian jewelers. The casket from Bimaran (2nd century AD) and several other objects of gold and silver are distinguished by the elegance of engraving, as are the crystal arks created in various Buddhist settlements. The faceted gems of the northwestern settlements are generally of little artistic value and almost all bear traces of Western influences.
Only a small number of ivory items have survived to this day. Records indicate the existence of corporations of ivory carvers. It was an honorable profession with the patronage of the ruling castes. The most interesting piece of ivory sculpture is a small figurine of a goddess discovered in Herculaneum and, no doubt, got there, like expensive fabrics and spices, through Egypt. Carved ivory plates of marvelous craftsmanship, originally used to decorate pieces of furniture or casket lids, have been found in Bergama, about eighty kilometers west of Kabul; they date back to the 1st-2nd centuries. AD The themes depicted on these plates, created in a region that was widely open to Western influences, are nevertheless typically Indian, so they were either simply imported here or executed by artists trained by Indian masters. Several techniques are skillfully used here: for example, ivory is alternately cut out, sharpened and divided into high relief and bas-relief, incised and acquires a light-shadow play. The clarity of the lines, despite the elegance of the product, gives these figures a striking relief and puts them on a par with other masterpieces of Ancient India. In a later period (XV-XVII centuries) in the workshops of southern India and Ceylon, remarkable from a technical point of view, ivory products were also created, many of which were objects of everyday life: figurines, elements of architectural and furniture decor, cases, caskets , combs, etc. Already in ancient times, the art of jewelry reached a high degree of perfection.
Introduction
Chapter I. History
Chapter II. Types of DPI in India
2.3 Varnish production in India
2.4 Metal products
2.5 Ceramic products
2.6 Textile art
2.7 Making masks
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Very often we come across, when considering and characteristics of the art of any country, with complete inattention to decorative and applied art. Usually, an analysis of architecture, painting and sculpture is considered to be exhaustive, while decorative and applied art is considered as a secondary art form that does not in itself of great historical and artistic value. That is why I believe that the topic of DPI itself cannot but be relevant. In addition, when talking about the art of India, we usually represent huge sculptural temples or miniature paintings, but DPI is the art, the description of which is often seen even in the description of a small country, or a vanished empire. But the DPI of India amazes with its delicate, sensual balance of large and small components, jewelry craftsmanship of artisans who created these works. DPI of India amazes with its luxury, the desire to fill the entire space with ornament, vitality, spirituality. It surprises with constant oppositions, stylization, dynamism, and a certain national identity. The colorful coloring makes the works of the Indian arts and crafts industry cheerful. Subject lines are often intertwined so closely that what is most important, intimate in the work is traced, but not intrusive, and their diversity is striking ...
Often, works of decorative and applied art served as household items, functionality was important to them, and beauty comes after it. In addition, it should be noted that the craftsmen who created these products were primarily artisans who possessed tremendous talent and a sense of beauty, and their works remained without the signature of their creator. These works make you admire and proud that people are more connected with the material than painters, nevertheless managed to turn utilitarian and purely functional objects into genuine works of art.
In my coursework, I want to show how diverse the decorative and applied art of India is, to prove that when considering the art of any country, DPI is not a secondary characteristic, but one of the main ones, because where, if not in DPI, one can trace the change of religions, cooperation with other countries, the country's economic situation, and its aesthetic ideals ...
Chapter I. History
1.1 The history of development and the influence of religion on the DPI of India
In ancient times in India, as well as in other countries, arts and crafts did not stand out as an independent field of art. Sculptural and artistic creation, painting and architecture were all considered craft. The works were usually anonymous.
The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of an artistically designed thing, that is, art products - everyday objects and tools, sacred ritual accessories and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.
The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them had a thematic or purely ornamental character. The decoration has always taken into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.
Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially common.
The materials from which the art products were made are extremely diverse, almost everything that nature gives was used: wood, leaves and herbs, vegetable fiber, nutshell; a simple, semiprecious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious metals; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. Of these, the most important are wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.
The artistic products of India in different parts of the country are not identical and differ in specificity and local originality. It is interesting that, for example, in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art have been preserved from ancient times - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the XI century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhalese tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to the distinction of Sinhalese craft from Tamil, which was no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception, brought originality to the local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.
The bulk of the art items that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century. The arts and crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to the South Indian. Skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka for centuries, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in the south of India, members of local artisan organizations (sreni), called in Sinhalese "salagamayo", weaved fine muslins with gold threads for the garments of the Sinhalese nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their own fashion of clothing and jewelry. For centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the shape and decoration of handicrafts remained unchanged from previous centuries. The colonial era in India was disastrous for arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, traditional art production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods finally undermined the folk arts and crafts. The fall of the national arts and crafts actually meant the disappearance of the only art form available to them in general from the everyday life of the people. However, some types of artistic production survived in India until the time of its independence, when a new period began in the development of national art.
Chapter II. Types of DPI in India
2.1 Bone carving art of India
In India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carvings due to its strength and fine-grained uniform texture; it is especially pleasing in appearance for its fine, graceful layering and delicate shade.
Local chronicles tell about the high art of the ancient Sinhalese ivory carvers. An interesting testimony has been preserved in the Chulawams that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made ivory into a bodhisattva figure and parts of his royal throne.
In India, figurines, panels, carved door frames (for example, from Ri-divihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (2), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks. Art Traditions the ivory carvings were stable. The surviving examples of the work of the 18th - early 19th centuries clearly testify to the etrm.
The ridges were very graceful and beautiful - panava, two-sided and one-sided. On one of them, for example, kept in a museum in Kandy, a relief rich in forms was created in the middle part with openwork carving. In the center, a goddess sits on a throne, holding tree branches in her hands. On both sides of her are two dancers. A simple frame with a geometric pattern sets off a complex image. At the other double-sided ridge, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle is a figurine of a mother sitting with an infant in her arms, on the right is the figure of a standing woman with a child, on the left is a pair of lovers. The clothes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum). Comparison of both ridges shows with what artistic flair the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central thread: the first ridge has a complex pattern inside, with many small details, which required a simplification of the frame; at the second ridge, figures without detailed details allowed a complex frame, which by its pattern does not compete with the internal images. The decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, turn out to be impeccable.
Of great artistic value is the skillfully and delicately executed figure of the guardian deity on the plate from the doorframe of the temple (collection of A.-K. Cumaraswamy) (3). In a low relief, a goddess is carved in front, holding a plant shoot and a flower in her bent hands. Fingers are unusually graceful, thin folds of clothing, tightly fitting the figure. Scientists have dated this disc to the 18th century, but one can think that it is much older in time.
Caskets and boxes with thin solid relief carving are interesting. Carved handles of knives of various shapes are very effective - sometimes in the form of "liyya pata" (plant motifs), sometimes in the shape of a monster's head with an open mouth - and many other products made of bone (4).
2.2 Artistic wood processing
Woodcarving was closely related to architecture, which was mostly wood during the Kandy period. The work of local carpenters, who made various products necessary for household life, was distinguished by its originality. They skillfully made furniture, tools, carved boxes, etc.
For example, beautifully ornamented boards for the game - "olynda colombu" are a real work of art. (five)
They are located on low feet and have seven circular indentations along each longitudinal edge. This is a local national, predominantly female game. Usually it was played by two women who placed five to seven olinda seeds in each cavity. Women from the royal family played with pearls instead of seeds. The sides of the board were decorated with a geometric pattern, the pits were placed in rectangular sections, in pairs or one at a time. In the center of the board, a relief figure of a fantastic beast was sometimes carved (sample in the Kang-di Museum). The composition of seed pits and geometric motifs can be very diverse.
The shape of the rice press is original and complex, but very elegant. In the center, it has the shape of a barrel, close to a cylinder, into which ground boiled rice is poured and squeezed out through holes in the metal bottom. The head of a fantastic bird and (from the opposite side) its tail, made in a stylized form, extend from the cylinder to both sides. The cylinder is decorated with a helical thread, which, as it were, goes over the bird's neck. Above is a comfortable horizontal "handle. The whole shape is very effective.
The cuttings of wooden scoops are beautifully and fancifully curved. Under the scoop, a monster's head or ornamental plant motifs were often carved. The latter pattern, but in a richer form, was also used on the door bolts ("agula").
In the collection of Cumaraswamy there is a round flat wooden box, one of those intended to store royal regalia. It is a lacquered lathe with concentric stripes. The main ornamental detail is a wide openwork brass loop with intricate floral motifs.
National furniture is very diverse. The legs of stools and armchairs were given a bizarre shape; headboards, etc., were also decorated with rich carvings. According to sources, furniture in rich houses was made of very expensive types of wood. The Chulavamsa says that in the palace of King Parakramabahu, furniture was adorned with gold and expensive ivory.
2.3 Varnish production in India
Indian varnish is obtained from a resinous substance secreted by two types of insects that are found on trees and plants. In addition, imported varnish of similar origin is used in small quantities.
The varnish workers are called i-waduvo, which literally means "arrow maker". These artisans are the lowest class of craftsmen because they mainly work as turners. They sharpen wood and decorate it, making arrows, bows, spears, legs of beds and other furniture, barrel boards, torch handles, flag poles, etc. When rotating an object on a lathe, it can be easily varnished by pressing a varnish stick ; then the latter, heating up from friction, softens and fills the grooves cut on the object. A similar Kandyan technique is used in India by Jodhpur varnishers. Kandyan varnishes were especially famous in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Another technique was in Matale, known as niyapoten-veda, that is, working with a fingernail, since the lathe was not used here and varnish was applied with the thumbnail. A dye is added to the varnish: red, yellow, green and black. This varnish is used to cover wooden canes, shafts of ceremonial spears and banners, powder flasks, book bindings, oboes. Colored lacquer is also inlaid on ivory, horn and shell.
2.4 Metal products
Metalworking was considered one of the most ancient and respected professions of artisans. The metalworkers were divided into several groups - blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths. Chronicles also report on these groups of artisans. "Chulavamsa" tells how Parakramabahu attracted blacksmiths, coppersmiths and even goldsmiths for the construction, as at that time there was not enough stone carvers.
India has always been famous for the remarkable work of jewelers. Excellently executed gold jewelry is mentioned many times in the chronicles. The Sinhalese loved and continue to love various jewelry. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, kings and wealthy courtiers wore gold earrings, bracelets, rings with precious stones.
Jewelry art, in particular the processing of precious stones, is still flourishing in the city of Ratnapur, in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich semi-precious and precious gems are mined. Cutting is done mainly by Sinhalese jewelers from Galle. For centuries, Ceylon artisans have made a variety of products from simple and precious metals.
However, by the beginning of the 20th century, according to the testimony of Kumaraswami, the author of the book "Medieval Sinhalese Art", iron smelting was preserved only in Khatarabag, near Balangoda, among the representatives of the lower caste, and only a few people in Alutnuvar were engaged in production during these years. Steel smiths were called "navandanno". Since ancient times, they have made not only tools for the farmer and carpentry tools, but also swords, spearheads and arrowheads, knives, mortars for betel nut, parts of palanquins, surgical instruments, arrows for elephants, stilettos for writing, locks, keys and plates for them, door hinges, bolts, handles.
There are three main techniques for decorating metal with gold or silver: 1) the simplest method is when the metal surface is incised with light intersecting grooves, and then a layer of noble metal is attached by blows of a hammer. Due to the plasticity and ductility of gold and especially silver, they adhere tightly to the uneven surface of the product and adhere quite firmly to it. In North India, such a notch is called a koftgari; 2) incrustation, when in iron or steel the lines of the pattern are made in the form of a narrow deep groove, the exit side of which is narrower than the bottom, and a noble metal wire is driven into it (or copper, brass - generally of a different color than the metal of the product itself). The wire is driven in with a hammer very firmly, the edges of the groove grip it tightly, and then the surface only needs to be smoothed out with polishing. This method is more difficult, more metal is required for the ornament than for notching. But where special strength is required from the ornament, for example, on weapons, inlay is used more often than notch; 3) an overlay, when the place under it slightly deepens and a groove is made along the contour. Then a thin plate of gold or silver (also copper), cut into the shape of a depression, is inserted into it, and the edges of the plate are driven into a groove, minted and polished. The plate itself can be ornamented with engraving or embossed relief. All of these forms of decoration are collectively called ridiketayanveda. The work is usually done by blacksmiths, but especially fine items are handled by a goldsmith.
It is not uncommon for Kandyan blacksmiths to blacken the wrought iron to give it a look similar to European blued steel. Then the metal rusts less, and the precious metal and, in general, the notch and inlay stand out more effectively against a dark background. For blackening, the metal surface is treated with a special composition and fired.
Brass items are minted by goldsmiths, and molds are cast by smelters - locaruvo, belonging to a lower group of artisans.
An example of a brass product is the key plate from Malvatte Pansala. Around the hole there are stylized openwork plant and flower forms, and at the top there is an image of a sacred goose (hansa), and two birds with crossed necks are shown. Such plates are usually decorated with smaller plant motifs made with openwork technique. The iron plate from Danagirigalavihara is also very effective, in the form of two heads of a bird of prey facing in opposite directions.
All kinds of vessels, for example, for water, available in each vihara, are cast from brass and bronze, from which the flowers laid on the altar are watered. They often come with a spout, and then they also drink water from them. Bronze is less commonly used for casting, but elephant bells, musical cymbals, molds for forging brass, silver and gold, and instruments for embossing using the "repusse" technique are almost always cast from bronze.
Lamps, which come in the most varied and very interesting shapes, are more often cast in brass than bronze. They are upright and hanging. The latter includes a fine brass specimen at the Colombo Museum in the form of a bird suspended from a chain. Below there is a spout with a reservoir for oil and a wick, on which a small figure of a bird rises. In the same museum there is a standing lamp adorned at the top with a stylized Hans figure. Below is an expanding tray for five wicks. The work appears to be Tamil, very typical of South India.
Copper church vessels for water (kendiyya) are sometimes decorated on the neck and lid with "cabochon" garnets (with round grinding). One such jug from Ri-dihara has a rounded body, a high neck, rather thick with a slight bell, a convex lid, a slightly curved, high nose. At its base there is an engraved floral ornament.
Almost every household item is decorated with amazing invention, artistic taste and skill. Take, for example, the key to the door of Maduvanvelvihara, massive, iron, trimmed with brass, richly ornamented at the ring; ankh (ankuza), brass, with an iron tip (from the Para-natella collection), with a bent point in the form of a monster's head, or torches, where a figurine of a peacock or a rearing lion is added to the bowl with decorative boldness and grace - all things amaze with a skillful combination of practical convenience and fine artistic taste.
After the robbery of Kandy by the British in 1815, few silver and gold items remained in the Kandyan temples. Mostly there were vessels, lamps, trays, fans, for example, in the Hindu temple of Maha Devala and the Buddhist temple of the Buddha's tooth - Dalada Maligawa in Kandy. Here are some of these items. Kendiya is a church vessel for water, silver, of excellent proportions: the body is round in cross section, but flattened vertically, the throat is high, massive, slightly widening downward, at the end there is an expansion and a convex lid, the leg is round, wide, the nose is vertical, high. Light rings on the throat. The forms are massive, even monumental, and this corresponds to the almost complete absence of ornamentation. A large glass for storing pasta made of sandalwood, made of black stone, in a gold frame with inlays of rubies and with four sapphires at the corners of a square leg. The glass was in the possession of Rajadhiraja Sinha and was presented by him to the Maha Devala temple. Along the edges of the glass, a gold border with a geometric pattern in relief is imposed, and gold ornaments of complex shapes hang on four sides. There is a relief ornament on the leg. All of this contrasts beautifully with the black stone.
The golden fan in the form of a round disc from Dalad Maligava is a donation made by King Kirti Sri Rajasinha. An ornamented border strip runs along the edges of the disc, in the center there is a graceful slightly embossed rosette. The thin profiled handle of the fan is connected by ornament with the central rosette, and on the opposite edge of the disk there is a false tip, as if continuing through the entire width of the disk of the handle. This ingenious trick lends a special grace to the fan and creates a uniform visual impression.
Luxuriously decorated with a silver scoop - "kinissa" - with a carved ivory handle (London Museum "South Kensington" (Now called the Victoria and Albert Museum.)), Originating from a Kandyan temple or palace (1). The scoop is hemispherical, richly decorated with a slightly embossed stylized floral ornament. From the side, a figurine of a man climbs onto the ladle, against whose back the end of an ivory handle, which is a single whole, rests against it. This piece, unexpectedly placed between the scoop and the end of the handle, is unusually effective and shows the original and daring creative imagination of the master. In form and composition, the human figure is exceptionally successful and is appropriate in its decorative role. The ornament on the handle is of the type of liyya pata with the head of a monster resembling either a sinha (lion) or a dragon-fish, like the Indian monster - makara.
2.5 Ceramic products
Ceramics, despite its apparent simplicity, was of great artistic importance due to the beautiful forms of vessels and, albeit unpretentious, but skillfully executed ornamentation.
Potter's products were used not only for domestic needs, but also for sacred rituals, as well as architecture, since clay tiles were required for construction.
Potters themselves made the ornament by carving or stamping. On more expensive items, the ornament was figured. Sometimes colorful paintings were also used.
Village potters skillfully knew how to use the plastic qualities of clay as a material and, giving shape to their products, no doubt, took into account the peculiarities of their practical purpose. The ornament usually also matched the material.
There were potters in every village; sometimes potter settlements arose near rich deposits of clay. From here, the products were transported to different areas. It is not surprising that excellent quality red pots from Nikapata (near Haputale), where the Tamils \u200b\u200bworked, went to Balangoda, and vessels from Kelania, decorated with a white carved pattern, ended up in Ratnapura, Kegalla and even in Kandy. Some of the pottery was also imported from South India.
The potters' tools were extremely simple; the main thing is a wheel (shaft), with a stone sleeve, which was inserted into a stone nest, recessed into the ground, so that the wheel rose from the ground by no more than 15 cm.Handwork gave artistic products freedom of form, plasticity, in contrast to dryness, inevitably resulting from the execution of the form with a machine stencil.
For example, here are some pottery.
A massive vase (kalakha), which served as a stand for the lamp, is beautiful in shape. Its body is round in cross-section, flattened vertically, with a thick cylindrical neck, with three annular thickenings; the leg is wide, round, low. All details of the vase are proportional. The painting is light yellow on a red background, in the form of stylized foliage motifs.
Another vessel is also of a bizarre shape, with twelve noses sticking out upward and with ring rims on a low wide neck. In full accordance with the complex shape of the vessel, the leg is made very massive, wide and rather high; it visually "holds" a wide body with spouts. The vessel was used for ritual dances and is called "punava".
The cornice tiles from the temple of Dalada Maligawa were richly decorated; on one side there is a magnificent sinha (lion) in relief, on the other - hansa (goose). In Kandy, similar tiles were also made in the form of a leaf of the sacred Bodhi tree and decorated with the image of a lion and a goose.
A very interesting song by the potter is dedicated to the description of the process of work, including decorative painting of vessels.
"Waking up at dawn, taking a basket, [the potter] goes to the clay deposits;
Having emptied the basket and prepared a place among the clay, he honors the guardian deity;
Dressed only in a loincloth, he cheerfully takes a kozin and goes down into the pit;
Without touching the sides of the pit, he digs out the clay from the middle and fills the basket.
After crushing the clay into pieces, he puts the basket on the rocker and pours the clay into the pottery yard;
Then he divides the clay into equal pieces and sets them up on a large mat in the sun;
After drying the clay and removing the stones from it, he pounds it in a mortar and sifts it through the kulla;
Then, taking the powder, he adds the same amount of water to it and makes balls from the mixture.
He takes these balls of clay, puts one on top of the other and covers them with leaves;
After three days, he again divides them into three parts, and then kneads them again;
Knowing the correct proportion, he adds the finest sand and, sprinkling with water, kneads everything again;
After kneading the mass, he again makes round balls out of it and puts them in a heap; and takes them again after three days.
After preparing them this way, he tramples and kneads the clay again and again;
When she becomes like sticky wax, he knows she is ready;
Then he divides it into separate lumps for vessels of different sizes;
He puts the clods prepared in this way near the workshop and carefully covers them.
On the next day, he separates the clumps of clay from one another with a split stone;
And having divided them properly, he again makes balls of them and holds them together as on the previous day;
The next day, waking up at dawn, he sweeps and tidies up the workshop;
And keeping all the balls of clay close at hand, he sits down in front of the wheel.
He takes the clay balls one by one with his right hand and places them on the wheel;
With his left hand he turns the wheel, with his right hand he molds [the vessel];
Knowing the size and shape [of the vessel], he presses down with his hand;
When the desired shape appears, it shapes the edges.
Leaving [the vessel] as it is and making a rim, he turns the wheel very quickly;
And watching to see if he is smooth, he corrects all the irregularities with the tip of his finger;
Spraying a little water, he polishes the pot, then gently takes it with his open palm;
Puts it down and then picks it up again thirty hours after making it.
Then, holding a stone galihede in his left hand and a wooden mallet in his right, firmly holding the vessel with his foot;
He pounds [along its lower edges] with the flat surface of a beater, making [of them] the bottom the full width of the pot;
And so having made the bottom completely and polished it, he places [the vessel] in the sun;
After he dries a little, he draws twigs with leaves [liavel], garlands and flower petals around the vessel.
Drawing around the line, petals of flowers, roosters, parrots, pigeons, selikhini;
And in turn the leaves of the [tree] bo, bouquets of flowers and dates, flowers on, flowers of olu and lotuses;
Making discs of sun and moon, makara at the gates [toran] and golden hansu;
Elephants, horses, deer, lions, tigers, wolves, bears, cobras and polongas.
Floating tisaru, flying wildcat, beautiful kinduro and honey bees;
Great boas, many ferocious snakes, sharks, turtles and golden peacocks;
Beautiful young maidens, whose breasts are plump like golden swans;
Not forgetting to draw cute adorable children.
Drawing around nari lat, branches with leaves and also letters of the alphabet with vowel signs;
By placing in the middle a trident with the "om" sign as a talisman;
By painting in the four corners animals with intertwined necks [puttu], peacock, cobra, swan and snake;
Zodiac signs, nine planets and twenty seven stars.
He takes a good red [paint] gurugala and a white one - macula and kneads them in water to a thick solution;
Mixing it with the right amount of oil to make the colors shine;
Then he exposes [the pots] to the sun to dry completely;
And then, having put them in a kiln, he dries them on the first day in smoke.
On the second day, having put as much wood as needed, he maintains a moderate fire;
On the third day he kindles a fairly hot flame and burns [the pots] to the end;
After that, he takes out the wood and extinguishes the flame, leaving [the items] to cool for three days;
On the fourth day, making sure that the oven has completely cooled down, he takes out the vessels one by one. "
All the potter's production experience, passed down from generation to generation, is put into this song, and his work is subtly poeticized.
2.6 Textile art
Since antiquity, weaving, embroidery and mat weaving have been widespread throughout the island.
There were two groups of weavers among the Sinhalese: Salagamayo - craftsmen from South India who made fine and brocade fabrics, and Berawayo - castes of local weavers who simultaneously worked as musicians, astrologers, etc.
According to tradition, King Vijayabahu III (XIII century) from Dambadenia, seeking to revive fine weaving, sent a messenger to South India with a request to send good craftsmen. The messenger returned, bringing with him eight weavers to whom the king granted villages, wives and honors. The descendants of these weavers incurred the disfavor of the Kandyan rulers and were forced to move to the southwestern coast. There they were no longer engaged in weaving, but in the cultivation of cinnamon on the royal lands. The same was their position under the Portuguese and Dutch domination.
The late medieval work Janavamsa reports on the multiple importation of Indian weavers to Sri Lanka. Local production virtually disappeared and had to be constantly supported by the immigration of craftsmen from South India.
During the period of English rule, folk textile production fell into decay. Before Sri Lanka gained independence, according to A.K. Coomaraswamy, homemade cotton yarn weaving, formerly common in all Kandyan provinces, has survived only in Talagun, Uda Dumbar and in places near Vellasa in Uwe.
The caste of local Sinhalese weavers from ancient times made simple cotton fabrics, which were produced until the beginning of the 20th century. The village weavers of the Kandy region were especially famous. Their products were not influenced by changes in court fashions and the art of the South Indian weavers who arrived here.
Local, like Indian, national clothing, as a rule, is not sewn by tailors from various pieces of fabric, its parts are woven in a finished form, and therefore they must come out of the machine in different shapes and sizes. This is how towels and napkins (indul kada), wearable fabrics for men (tuppoti), for women (pada, hela), men's aprons (diya kachchi), headscarves or shawls (lensu, hurray mala), sashes (party), blankets and sheets (etirili), carpets (paramadana), covers for clay jugs (gahoni) and pillowcases, etc. White, blue or red fabrics without a pattern were made for monks' clothes, hats, pillow cases, betel bags, etc. Thin muslins were never made by these village weavers.
The patterns were predominantly geometric in nature or in the form of highly stylized forms of animals, snakes, birds, the figures of which were collected in strictly decorative compositions.
Interesting and richly decorated, for example, with woven images of a sash that belonged to the highest Buddhist monk from Malvatta, made in the Uva region. In the horizontal belts there are rows of elephants, horses, lions, and highly stylized birds following one after another. These belts alternate with stripes filled with geometrized motifs. The colors are also varied: black, red, pink, blue, with green and yellow.
Geometrized shapes are not impersonal: they usually depict plants and flowers, curls from flower cups, etc.
Embroidery, like fabrics, was divided into limited-scale production (for the court and the nobility) with decorative motifs of Indian origin and into local, Sinhalese production itself.
There were few professional tailors (hannali); they served the king and his court with luxurious embroidery; for Buddhist and Hindu temples, they made sacred robes, curtains, temple banners, etc., participated in decorating chariots for sacred processions. For wealthy secular landowners, they made brocade jackets, gold-embroidered rectangular hats (toppiya), and embroidered sweaters for their families. The expensive material for such products was mostly imported from India, for example, red felt, velvet, sequins and tinsel, brocade for jackets, gold thread for embroidering hats and ceremonial fans.
One of them, originating from Maha Devale in Kandy, is made of red velvet, embroidered with gold and silver thread, with applique in green velvet; ornament in the form of geometrized plant forms, in the center there is a rosette, the front side is made of blue velvet, on which the sun, moon and stars are embroidered.
The betel nut bag (8) was embroidered effectively and variedly, most often with plant and floral motifs, always with a richly ornamented border strip. One of these handbags, kept in the Colombo Museum, is embroidered with a particularly delicate and delicate design. In the center is a rosette with four sharp leaves, between which are small flowers on the thinnest stems and figures of birds. Figures of birds are also placed between the central rosette and the circular border, embroidered with delicate plant twists and flowers. Mats (dumbara), which are woven by weavers of the lower caste - kinarai, are of no small importance for household use. Fiber is made from hemp. Part of the fiber is left in a natural white color, the rest is dyed black, yellow or red.
The warp threads are spun like cotton on a spindle; for the duck, ready-made natural hemp fibers are taken, the length across the mat. The loom is horizontal, similar to the cotton loom, but more primitive. Mats are also woven from grass and are called "peduru". The main paint for them is pa-tangi, which gives a beautiful shade of red.
The images on the mats are massive, geometrized, even monumental in their form and composition, and are highly suitable for the decorative purpose of mats as inextricably linked with the room, with architecture.
In the collection of A.K.Kumaraswamy there are two interesting examples of such mats. One in the central square, divided into nine rectangular sections, depicts: in the middle - an elephant, in the side rectangles - a naga (cobra), raised with a swollen hood. The upper and lower rows of rectangles have the same filling: on the average - a deer, on the sides - a pair of birds. The composition of these figures displays the correct artistic tact: the fallow deer (upper and lower) are turned in opposite directions; each pair of birds is also separated by setting their heads in different directions. With this finely calculated artistic technique, the master avoids the emphasized monotony.
From the central square with figures there are transverse stripes: the first is ornamented with zigzag lines, then three wide stripes, and then a row of narrow ones. Everything is designed for visual effect.
On the other mat, the overall composition is similar to the previous one. In the center - two birds, also turned in opposite directions, on the sides - nagas. Above and below belts with fish and birds, three belts at the top and bottom. All figures are directed in a different, but strictly thought-out order, with the correct decorative effect.
2.7 Making masks
art india master carver
One cannot but touch upon such a unique and vibrant art of Sri Lanka as masks. They have long been widespread as an integral part of folk drama and dances and have been extremely popular in the country since ancient times. In the dramatic performance of "kolam", everything is based on the use of masks. Masks are also used in the demonic tovil dances. Although the symbolic and religious significance of the dances has now largely been lost, the masks of the dancers and actors themselves remain an attractive sight for the population, especially in the villages.
Carvers of wood masks did not always pursue purely artistic goals, and many masks have only a specifically symbolic meaning. But a number of them can be considered genuine works of folk art due to their external expressiveness. Their ethnographic significance is also great.
The most artistically interesting masks are used in the "rassaya" dance in the prelude to the "kolam" performance. There are very fantastic and monstrous-looking masks depicting semi-divine beings. Much more realistic are the numerous masks of the Sannia dance used in the tovil show. They seem to reproduce caricatured images of people.
Very peculiar, for example, is the mask of an old drummer with a large thick beard and deeply furrowed wrinkles, an elderly expressive face, although his bulging eyes and a bared mouth give him a special grotesque (9) A concentrated but sly expression on his face with a refined fold of lips at muda, a high government official ...
The rajah has a face with a beautiful black mustache and a crown in the form of a complex structure three times the size of the head; on the sides of the face are the muzzles of two fantastic makaras (10). The bisawa (queen) has a beautiful face with a graceful fold of lips, her eyes are wide open, as if in surprise. The majestic crown is remembered for its plant and floral motif. From it descend on both sides of the pendant on "pearl" fabric, against which the face of the queen looks especially solemn.
Interesting and the face of a black woman with magnificently wavy hair, a hairstyle that falls behind the ears to the level of the chin. She laughs out loud, showing rows of shiny teeth. It should be noted that this detail is used to caricature characters of a low social rank: they usually have abnormally huge, distorted growing or rare teeth. The black woman, whom the artist clearly tried to show, is attractive, her teeth are even and beautiful. If the teeth are not shown at all in the higher persons, in the royal couple, in the mudala, in the village headman and the policeman, then the usurer (Hittiyya) has a distorted face, a crooked nose, small predatory eyes and two large teeth in a half-open mouth. The washerwoman (male) has huge bulging eyes, wide nose, tongue sticking out between the rows of large, tightly set teeth. His assistant is even more caricatured with a flattened nose and an upper row of teeth pushed far forward.
The masks of the dance "sannia" (10) are very expressive, they have a lot of creative imagination, but they look much more naturalistic.
The arts and crafts described belong to the end of the colonial era, when the crafts were in decline, both artistic and industrial. But this branch of folk culture, fortunately, did not die: almost all types of art products, although in small quantities, continued to be created, preserving their national characteristics.
The increased interest in the local national culture after India achieved independence, the comprehensive assistance from the government to art crafts contributed to their new development, and some types of art production literally revived anew.
New types of products appeared, in particular of a purely decorative nature, while in ancient times all artistic production had only a practical purpose. Ceramics, made on the basis of ancient traditions, appeared, decorative sculptures began to be made, for example, wooden sculptures from valuable rock trees, decorative wall trays, minted from brass and other metals, which reproduce with great skill the famous ancient "Moon stones".
Reviving folk arts and crafts, the Sinhalese and Tamil population of the island preserves and develops their national traditions; your creative talent and skill.
Chapter III. Contemporary Indian art
3.1 Indian contemporary art
In India, interest in the art of contemporary artists has increased in recent years. Certain spaces in galleries and showrooms are specially rebuilt to accommodate large installations, complex video art projects, or multimedia installations. 3 typical examples in Delhi - Space Gallery, Vadehra Art Gallery, Talwar Gallery, considered by many to be the best gallery of contemporary art, recently opened a second branch to showcase complex art projects and another branch in Kolkata.
In addition to auctions, opening days, the KHOY Center with workshops for artists has emerged in the southern region of Delhi. This is the only institution in the country where projects and programs for artists have been developed. The reference room contains catalogs of various exhibitions and a set of articles about contemporary Indian artists. Puja Sud, the energetic founding director of the KHOY Center, is fighting to keep the Center fully operational: “The government has refused to support contemporary art,” she said. Only the private sector provides assistance to such institutions and new art. However, disappointment and frustration reign in Indian art circles today. Nikhil Chopra, a young performance artist from Mumbai, says: “I can't believe that in a country of more than a billion inhabitants, there are no more than 10 primitive art schools, no contemporary art museum, no real funding, no well-trained contemporary art curators group. , there is no art criticism in periodicals. And there is only one serious art magazine (Art of India), few large collectors of contemporary art. In other words, there is no real infrastructure in the field of contemporary art in the country ”.
And yet there are signs of improvement. They are going to build a museum of modern art in Kolkata. In 2008, the Devi Art Foundation was opened here at the initiative of a large young collector Akunam Poddar to showcase his collection of works by contemporary artists, organize exhibitions, lectures and conferences. The Jawaharlar Nehru University in Delhi has a School of Arts and Aesthetics with a very challenging program in art history and cultural studies.
Only in recent years have Indian artists been able to exhibit alongside their European and American counterparts. And those who do not travel abroad can see whatever they want via the Internet and find their identity in the current global art arena. And in their art, one can no longer trace the "exceptional manifestation of the Indian spirit" either in plot or in style. However, many Indian artists, they claim, oppose globalist tastes. “We travel, we become more and more informed and this gives us more useful knowledge for the creation of knowledge,” says Subodh Gupta. “But in my works, these steel pots, pans, kitchen utensils emerge from my childhood among the lower middle class, they arise from memories of my family and rituals related to food.”
However, not everyone is so honest about their work. Abhay Sardesai, editor-in-chief of The Art of India magazine, says that many contemporary Indian artists either focus too much on the local context or over-emphasize globalist tendencies, depending on the tastes of the customers, exploiting familiar symbols of Indian culture in such a way that, by extracting and exaggerating the local context, create something spectacular for Western consumers.
Gayatri Sinha, a critic and curator based in Delhi, believes that more than any other source of influence, the politics of the southern continent form the context where Indian art is being created today. The most prominent painter of India, Hussein, celebrated his 95th birthday in 2010 in exile, forced to leave his homeland due to threats and attempts on his life by Hindu fundamentalists. He is accused of depicting the gods and goddesses naked in his paintings.
Yet these frictions can in some cases be a source of powerful creative inspiration. “This is an extremely intolerant, extremely racist society,” Kanwar said in an interview. “Indian artists are shown all over the world. And every day they decide how they will behave in relation to society, whether to enter into confrontation with it, whether to maintain a critical attitude or do work for the market. "
But at the moment, the Indian art world is rewriting the last page of its history at a furious pace.
3.2 Problems of Indian art from the point of view of Western criticism
1. Preserving the memory of painting as the only alternative to Indian art, consistent with universal values, combined with the tradition of identifying itself as a unique nation. This scheme is unacceptable for hybrid artists, emigrants who are integrated into a different social and artistic discourse. It is also very problematic to use this scheme to reflect on the elements of Western art that Indian artists seek to assimilate in their art, because the images created by such authors cannot be compared with the works of local artists.
2. Sacralization, demonization and other dangers that threaten contemporary Indian art. Communication with Europe and the United States is possible provided that the works of Indian artists are sold. And what is being sold is what destroys the original national traditions. In works for sale to Western collectors, there should be no duality, something that requires a complex interpretation, that is, the authors should abandon both the traditions of national culture and all trends coming from outside. As a result, there is a danger of evaluating the works, the work of Indian artists, denying the individuality of the creator.
3. Parallel discourses. On the one hand, the work of an Indian artist in the West involves the creation of worlds, violently opposing each other. And then we are faced with a high avant-garde, with artists who, realizing themselves as Indians, are able to enter into a worthy dialogue with the universal system of contemporary art. These are Annish Kapoor, Hussein and Sousa. On the other hand, all the rest are provincial Indian artists, misunderstood, immersed in their reality. And there can be no intersections here. Of course, Western curators and collectors prefer to deal with the former. Handicrafts, recourse to a purely local system of imagery, kitsch crafts, women's art, small galleries - are losing their importance among the grandiose, well-promoted Western models and, as a rule, are doomed to oblivion.
4. The path of painful searches. Western critics talk about a single, universal, social, economic, technological and cultural development model established by Western countries. The real situation is that contemporary Indian art cannot abandon its relevance, and it cannot be reduced to following the Western model. Its strength lies in the multiplicity of artistic expressions and points of view. Here we are faced with a very difficult situation with thousands of schools flourishing. The richness and diversity of schools, representatives of contemporary Indian art makes impossible any polarization of critical discourse based on imprecise terms: tradition and modernity.
3.3 Perception of contemporary Indian art in the West
The discovery of Indian experimental art in the West in the past decade mirrors a dramatic change in the Indian art scene, with increased sales and the emergence of Indian artists in major international cultural centers.
As never before, the penetration of elements of Western art is felt in the art of India. Can the former colonial potential of the West revive today and establish a new dependence, this time cultural, in relation to the old colonies? What is the significance of the acceptance of contemporary Indian art in Europe? Isn't there a way to resist the new dependence on Western countries?
Today, Indian art is considered one of the most promising manifestations of contemporary culture. As an example, we can cite dozens of exhibitions, projects, magazines, events in which Indian artists and sculptors are involved in large centers of the West: the USA, Great Britain, Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Spain. The works of contemporary Indian artists are presented in large private and museum collections in the West.
Over the past 20 years, foreign buyers have shown an increasing interest in the works of Indian artists. Since 2002, prices for them have even increased 2-3 times. The best-selling contemporary artists Atula Dodiyi and Subodh Gupta sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. And the auction prices for paintings by prominent Indian modernists - Hussein, F.N. Sauces - have already crossed the $ 1 million mark. In 2010, Anish Kapoor's steel mirror sculpture was auctioned off by Christie for a record $ 1.4 million. A New York-based businessman paid $ 1.6 million for the Mahisasura painting by Chiba Mehta, about a Hindu demon defeated by the goddess Durga.
If earlier Indian artists envied the successes of their Chinese colleagues, today the situation is changing. Yamini Mehta, head of Indian Modern and Contemporary Art at Christie's Auction House in London, says the Indian art business is enjoying an opportune moment, but the lack of institutional support remains a big problem. “In India there was no state support for contemporary art, no funds were allocated for its development, as was the case, for example, in China,” she says. The Chinese authorities promoted their artists to compensate for the loss of creativity in the visual arts during the 1960s "cultural revolution." Unlike Chinese art, most of the works of Indian artists are bought by Indians. “Most Indians buy the work of local artists, which is a good way to start collecting. But gradually, Indian art has to go beyond its own country for wider acceptance in the West, ”said Stefan Wimmer of the Beck Egling Gallery in Germany.
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The art of ancient India gradually developed as a synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting. It, of course, was influenced by foreign art styles, but did not lose its originality at all.
There are very few sculptural, and even more so architectural monuments of the Harappan and Vedic eras. Most likely, the architecture of that time had simple and austere forms, because at least externally, the houses of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro did not have any decorative elements. The most ancient art of sculpture and glyptics (stone, terracotta and bronze figurines and seals, the purpose of which has not been clarified, pottery) developed in a realistic way and showed the high artistic tastes of its creators.
The heyday of ancient Indian architecture and art fell on the era of Mauro and the "golden age of the Gupta".
During the era of the first Indian empires, intensive palace construction was carried out in the country, but the royal palaces were built of wood and therefore did not survive. At the same time, Buddhist temple architecture flourished, which, in contrast to the palace, stone, was partly preserved. Its oldest sights are stupas, in which Buddhist relics (parts of the body of Buddha and Buddhist saints) were kept. The domed stupa, the prototype of which was, perhaps, an earthen grave mound, symbolized emptiness, fragility and illusory nature of earthly existence (from the outside, the stupa looks like a water bubble that immediately bursts during the rain).
In the III century. n. That is, near the stupas and cremation sites of Buddhist saints, the construction of chaitya rock temples and vihara monastic cells began. They were carved into the rock using the "internal carving" method: first, the premises were carved out, and then sculptural images of Buddha and saints were carved into the walls. When the temple became cramped for the monks, new caves were cut down next to it, as a result of which whole cave complexes arose.
One of the oldest temple complexes (by the way, it is the best preserved) was built in Karli, southeast of modern Bombay. But the most famous temple complex is Ajanta in Maharashtra - 29 rock caves in the mountainous frame of the Vahuara River. Ajanta became famous for her wonderful paintings, which will be discussed separately.
The art of sculpture also flourished in the ancient Indian empires. The sculptors reproduced scenes from the jatakas in stone (they, in particular, dominate the carved gates of the Toran stupa in Sanchi), carved statues of yaksha and yakshinis - gods of fertility, guards of the god of wealth Kubera.
In the southern capital of the Kushan Empire, Mathura, where an independent art school was formed, local courtesans willingly posed for the creation of statues of yakshinis by sculptors, who took part in financing the construction of altars and temples. Such statues had little in common with the mythical images of the yakshinis; eroticism dominated in them. Sculptors from Mathura generally liked to decorate temples with graceful erotic scenes, next to which the eroticism of other art schools of the past looks wretched. The stone pornography of individual Indian temples is a product of the intense sexual mysticism of Indian religions, on which art was completely dependent.
In the Maurian period, a tradition arose of constructing carved columns of stambhi in places associated with the biography of Buddha, and on the paths of pilgrims to Buddhist shrines.
In the first centuries of our era in Gandhara, under the influence of Hellenistic artistic traditions, a local art school was formed, which is called "Greco-Budtsian" or simply Gandhara. She was distinguished by the transfer of Buddhist subjects into Greco-Roman plastic. It was in Gandhara that the iconography of the Buddha first appeared (most likely in the 1st century AD), the images of Buddhist symbols were intercepted: the "wheels of the law" (chakra), "sacred tree" (bodhi), "umbrella", feet, throne and Buddha was depicted with his 32 canonical features: earlobes are drawn, a characteristic bulge on the crown of the head (a sign of higher wisdom), a mark between the eyebrows (a symbol of great spiritual power), short hair on the head, twisted into curls (symbolized the movement of the sun and eternity) , a halo, etc. The face of the Buddha was idealized as much as possible. A complex symbolism of the positions of the hands and fingers (mudra) was developed: each gesture of God symbolized something. The Buddha was depicted in three canonical poses: sitting (in deep meditation), standing (Buddha is going preaching) and lying (the moment of transition to nirvana) .Mahayanists believed that the larger the statue of Buddha, the better it conveys the greatness of the deity (and more strongly affects the believers), therefore, they often created stone and copper colossi, next to with which the ancient Egyptian colossi would not be so majestic. In the era of the Guptas, sculptors depicted individual gods with many arms and many legs, thus trying to convey their superhuman strength and power.
A large number of valuable pieces of art, which are the heritage of this amazing ancient civilization, are kept in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, picturesque images and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, fabrics, unique lacquerware, bronze and metal products. and household items. The Russian artist Roerich made a great contribution to the preservation of treasures and architectural monuments of India. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who in his time contributed to the conclusion of the International Covenant for the Protection of Cultural Property.
Europeans and Americans have strong associations when they mention India. These are Bollywood, yoga, strict traditions, unshakable family values \u200b\u200band stunning beauty of jewelry. Indian jewelry with an abundance of jewelry, gold and silver of the highest standard, intricate design "speak" of folk motives, enjoy great success all over the world. Indian jewelry culture has had a great influence on the European one, as evidenced by the best jewelry of the British Crown, which is either made in the Indian style or decorated with a large number of Indian stones. At the beginning of the 20th century, Cartier was imbued with the spirit of Indian civilization and now periodically releases collections based on this theme.
Indian maharajas, making long trips to Europe and America, brought their fancy jewelry, thanks to which master jewelers began to learn how to perform intricate filigree work with precious stones, making jewelry in the Indian style. European residents, falling in love with the oriental tunes of Indian jewelry, began to demand that local craftsmen make them to order. This is how India found its window to Europe.
Products from semi-precious stones. Indian jewelry has its own distinctive features that make it recognizable and unique. These products are symmetrical. Despite the variety of stones of different colors and the combination of different materials, they do not have any mess. The festive life of the Indians is closely associated with dancing, and jewelry has always been part of the festive costume. Therefore, they have their own sound and musicality.
India is a country with its own jewelry traditions that have been passed down through generations. Each city where jewelry is made specializes in a certain type of work. The famous Jaipur is famous for the art of working with enamel, Andhra Pradesh is famous for working with silver, Delhi for setting jewelry. Each such city has its own gold bazaar, and, despite the high price of pure gold and silver, Indian jewelers never save and do not skimp on the abundance of details from these precious metals.
Indian jewelry is made of gold, silver, faience, ivory, ceramics, copper, bronze, precious and semi-precious stones. they were found in different places during excavations, and since then each city has its own jewelry features.
Tradition and modernity of Indian jewelry art. In Jaipur and Delhi, Menakari and Kundali styles were born. Menakari is the art of enamel - a traditional Indian craft. Enamel was applied to the jewelry to check the quality of the gold. The brighter the enamel jewelry shines, the better the gold is used.
Kundali is the oldest method of making gold jewelry in India. The Menakundan style is a true artwork of different colors displayed on the back of the jewelry, while the Kun Dala style is displayed on the front. Contemporary jewelry in these styles is made by craftsmen in Bikaner and Rajasthan. They are attractive for their historical aura, which takes us back to a time when such luxury was available only to wealthy blue-blooded people.
Some of the simplest Indian jewelry without the use of stones are gold bracelets, beads, earrings, pendants, which are several rows of flat parts, bars, fastened together with the finest threads.
Indian art is renowned for its traditional motives, which are reflected in the art of jewelry. Especially often they resort to floral and animal themes. These decorations are a kind of talismans, since there is not only a decorative purpose here. Each flower and each animal personifies the wishes of the owner, protects him from misfortune, brings wealth, fertility, and good luck. Even in an inexpensive bracelet, there is no random pattern - everything is thought out to the smallest detail.
Decoration from the Hindustan is a national tradition combined with luxury, to which another world is drawn. A scattering of precious stones around the neck or modest earrings - it remains to choose according to your taste, possibilities and suitable occasion.
Wood carving. When the Mongols invaded India in the 16th century, they were in for a meeting with one of the world's oldest civilizations. Around 3000 BC e. the city of Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley had a regular layout; most of the structures, due to the significant humidity, were made of fired bricks.
The hot climate required the construction of patios that surrounded the space of the chambers.
Around the 4th century BC. e. art forms have undergone significant changes. Greek elements mixed with Indian, resulting in new distinctive forms. During this period, furniture also changed. A low primitive bed-frame on four legs with supports passed through them has become widespread. Moreover, the lying plane was wicker. These beds, made of expensive materials, have always been richly decorated. A typical Indian product is a stool with carved and varnished legs and a wicker seat.
In India, rich in various resins, varnishing techniques were highly developed, as well as the use of resins for decorative purposes. One of the methods was varnishing with colored varnishes, which dried quickly enough. It was mainly used for chiseled pieces of furniture. Individual small pieces of furniture and drawers were made of papier-mâché and varnished in a rather complicated way. Intarsia from ebony, mother-of-pearl, ivory (Bombay mosaic), as well as ivory carvings were used to decorate the furniture.
The unpretentiousness of the Hindus is evidenced by a simple portable "piece of furniture" - a support for the body: a fakir who sits on his haunches, rests his hands and head on a support and sleeps peacefully. However, the Indians knew very well what comfort was. This is evidenced, for example, by the ceremonial chair of a Buddhist monk, which is reminiscent in its design of the ancient Indian throne.
Contemporary Indian style furniture. Later, when the influence of Europe was in India, new needs appeared that revived the thousand-year-old skill of the Hindus. A new, mixed style emerged. In the 19th century, there were many lovers of Indian furniture in Europe, who were most often bought through their lush and exotic decor. First of all, furniture decorated with Bombay mosaics was appreciated. All this has led to a revival of Indian furniture art. Although new Indian furniture began to acquire European forms, thanks to a large number of Indian-Arabian ornaments, they retained their characteristic national character.
The Indian style of furniture, despite its unusual and foreign features, is interesting and very decorative. Along with the careful study of details, we are first of all impressed by the passion of Asian peoples for pomp and complex ornamentation, which is not always organically connected with the purpose of a particular product.
The most typical colors for the modern Indian style are turquoise, crimson, orange. Moreover, they are completely unique in their own way. Indian silk is a little rough and not as smooth or slippery to the touch as Chinese silk. Furniture in Indian homes is low, hand-cut from teak, a very durable wood.
A characteristic feature of the Indian interior is the easy transformation of the details of the house: chairs and tables, screens, shutters and doors often "change roles". The inhabitants of India used every opportunity to decorate and decorate their homes.
Lush openwork carving in Indian furniture art is a testament to the special passion of Hindus for luxurious decor and jewelry.
So, the artistic craft of India is one of the oldest in the world. Folk artisans have achieved extraordinary skill in weaving and metal processing. They were especially famous for their chasing, metal carving, filigree, inlay, wood and bone carving, and the manufacture of lacquerware. Handicrafts were widespread not only in cities, but also in rural areas, where, depending on the natural conditions or the availability of some type of material (ivory, valuable wood species), one or another type of applied art flourished. Kashmir wool, enamels of Jaipur, ivory of Travankor-Cochin, etc. have become world famous.
A deeply popular art form is vibivanky - cotton fabrics, on which multi-figured scenes (musicians, dancers, wicker animals, whole scenes from peasant life) are reflected with wooden stamps, which amaze with their brightness, cheerfulness and decorativeness. Vibivanks reflect the folklore legends and beliefs of India, the flavor of its rich tropical nature. Handmade silk brocade with gold or silver thread, which is intended for the higher castes, amazes with the elegance and subtlety of the pattern, delicate color combinations, noble ornament.
The manufacture of utensils (dishes) from bronze, copper and steel reached a wide variety of forms and ornamentation.
The oldest types of folk art - woodcarving and bone carving - were common in many regions of India. Carved furniture, architectural details, caskets, caskets, figurines were made of wood. Folk craftsmen used elephant tusks to make whole compositions or sculptures depicting the deities and heroes of the epic, as well as jewelry.
1.1 The history of development and the influence of religion on the DPI of India
In ancient times in India, as well as in other countries, arts and crafts did not stand out as an independent field of art. Sculptural and artistic creation, painting and architecture were all considered craft. The works were usually anonymous.
The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of an artistically designed thing, that is, art products - everyday objects and tools, sacred ritual accessories and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.
The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them had a thematic or purely ornamental character. The decoration has always taken into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.
Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially common.
The materials from which the art products were made are extremely diverse, almost everything that nature gives was used: wood, leaves and herbs, vegetable fiber, nutshell; a simple, semiprecious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious metals; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. Of these, the most important are wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.
The artistic products of India in different parts of the country are not identical and differ in specificity and local originality. It is interesting that, for example, in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art have been preserved from ancient times - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the XI century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhalese tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to the distinction of Sinhalese craft from Tamil, which was no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception, brought originality to the local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.
The bulk of the art products that have survived to us date back to not
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