With a word, influencing its expressiveness, the beauty of pronunciation. It is expressed primarily by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (“second life”).

Without having a definite position in the theory of literature, the name “epithet” is applied approximately to those phenomena that are called a definition in syntax, and an adjective in etymology; but the coincidence is only partial.

There is no established view of the epithet in literary theory: some attribute it to figures of speech, others consider it, along with figures and tropes, an independent means of poetic depiction; Some consider the epithet to be an element of exclusively poetic speech, others find it in prose as well.

This “oblivion of real meaning,” in the terminology of A. N. Veselovsky, is already a secondary phenomenon, but the very appearance of a constant epithet cannot be considered primary: its constancy, which is usually considered a sign of epic, epic worldview, is the result of selection after some diversity.

It is possible that in the era of the most ancient (syncretistic, lyric-epic) song creativity this constancy did not yet exist: “only later did it become a sign of that typically conventional - and class - worldview and style, which we consider, somewhat one-sidedly, to be characteristic of epic and folk poetry" [ ] .

Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (Mother Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature; without them it is difficult to imagine a work of art.

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✪ What is an epithet? [Lectures on literature]

✪ Russian language | Preparation for the OGE | Task 3. Means of speech expression

✪ Unified State Exam 2017. Literature. Epithet

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Dictionaries of Epithets

Epithets of Literary Russian Speech. A. Zelenetsky. 1913

Our speech would be poor without words that describe the characteristics of the objects that we are telling our interlocutor about. Epithets help convey how a speaker feels about a particular phenomenon and what assessment he gives it.

Let's consider what an epithet is in literature, give a definition of this term, look at an example of why it is needed, and note the importance of its use in a particular case.

The word has ancient Greek roots, its meaning is clear from the translation - “attached”. The function of an epithet is to emphasize the word next to it.

It gives expressiveness to the phrase. This can be an adjective (a beautiful fence), an adverb (to run quickly), as well as a noun, numeral (third number), verb, .

Epithets are used in the poem to emphasize imagery, emotional coloring, the author’s vision, hidden or explicit meaning.

The epithet is often used in both poetry and prose. Its structure and textual functionality give the word color, new meaning, and emotionality. The role of the word is described by experts in different ways. They don't have a common vision. Although this is one of the oldest stylistic terms.

Some classify it among figures and paths, considering it an independent unit. Others argue that it should only be used in poetry and not in prose.

Important! Previously, the term “decorating epithet” was used, but it did not accurately characterize this phenomenon.

A simple epithet is an expression without a figurative meaning. And the lofty term can be attributed to metaphor.

It is difficult to overestimate the meaning of this word, since without its use the poems would be faded and inexpressive.

Defining words allow not only to emphasize the property of an object, but also to emotionally color the author’s attitude towards this object. Then the reader also feels the emotions that the author of the text wanted to convey.

Examples of epithets

Such techniques help highlight the main idea or emphasize advantages. People liked some expressions so much that they began to be used in speech. This suggests that the writer coped with his task: his work was not only remembered, but it also went to the people.

Sometimes it is only through these definitions that a writer can use their personality and come up with a unique definition. It may be the fruit of the author’s inner world, his attitude to the situation.

Use in literature

Using this technique, a significant feature is identified in what the author wanted to say. It can be a word or phrase. Two types can be used in a poem:

• figurative;
• lyrical.

The first option is used when you need to emphasize a word, but avoid evaluation. Examples: red sunset, yellow sun, blue sky. That is, it is rather a statement of fact. The second option is the author’s attitude towards what he describes (noisy aspen, most beautiful action).

Epithets: interpretation and role in language

With epithets that are well chosen, the writer or poet draws more attention to those words that he wants to emphasize or emphasize. Therefore, it is important to find expressions that will add expressiveness to the work.

A correctly chosen definition can give speech sophistication, depth and enhanced expression of properties. Most often, these words are adjectives. They are located behind the defined word.

Alexander Blok used reinforcements in his works, placing them distant from each other. This technique colored their sound. They were located at the end of the line of the poem.

Epithets in different parts of speech

Knowing what an epithet is in literature, a writer can easily use it to enhance the semantic effect, as well as create author’s definitions. This is the exception rather than the rule, but they are present in the works of V. Mayakovsky, for example.

With their help, he gives expression to expression, using not one word, but several. After reading such a combination of words, a person will think about the author’s thoughts and appreciate how complex and broad it is to look at everyday things.

After re-reading the expressions several times, it is easy to find the subtext and veiled message that the author wanted to convey to the reader.

Constant epithets

Many people wonder what permanent, established epithets are. This is a beautiful definition that is associated with the word and forms an inextricable, stable connection with it.

In fact, these are phrases that are fixed in the language and came into literature from folklore. Most often they are adjectives.

Definition of epithet, examples

Many examples of these stable phrases can be easily found in fairy tales and epics. As a rule, this is the highest quality in the item being described. They fit organically into the meaning of the works.

Constant epithets describe the idealized world of the work, its perfection. They are also used in songs for lyrical appreciation.

Their use occurs systematically, they quietly take root in speech. For example:

• red maiden;
• sugar lips;
• the sun is clear;
• gray bunny;
• Golden autumn;
• white hands;
• biting frost;
• clear field.

They are used so often that they lose their original meaning. But their main use was in folk art.

Examples of epithets

The linguistic term “means of expression” is a certain combination of several words that form one whole.

This term describes words artistically. He:

• defines features and qualities;
• creates an impression;
• expresses the emotionality of the author;
• conveys mood;
• describes the image;
• evaluates and characterizes.

Types of epithets

The following types are distinguished:

1. Sustainable or poetic. Most often they find their use in folklore, as well as in poems.
2. Figurative or descriptive.
3. Lyrical, emotionally charged.
4. Double, triple.
5. Metaphorical.
6. Metanomic.

Types of epithets

Important! Epithets are the main building blocks that the author uses to create the artistic world of a work. With their help, you can plunge into the atmosphere of the poem and become a witness of the era.

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Let's sum it up

When the author gives the simplest words unusual features, he emphasizes the brightness and expressiveness of the story he wants to tell. This technique gives volume to the word and expression, and a process of emotional evaluation occurs.

With the help of colorful definitions, the world that a writer or poet creates becomes alive and tangible. After reading such a work, a person can easily imagine the world and the described atmosphere based on figurative words.

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Russian language

What is an epithet and how to find it?

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An epithet is a poetic device that gives a word definition or expression. Used in artistic texts, sometimes in poetic and lyrical works.

The purpose of the epithet will be to emphasize something special, its special expressiveness, which the author wants to draw attention to.

The use of such an artistic technique allows the author to add subtlety, depth and expressiveness to the text. An epithet is used to denote the author’s creative intent (see).

Simple and combined epithets

• simple - there is one adjective, an epithet for the word, for example: silk curls, deep eyes;
• fused - they have two or more roots and are perceived as one whole, for example: wonderfully mixed noise.

There is such a thing as an epithet of authorship, which is less common than others. Gives the sentence a unique meaning and additional expressiveness. When you see such texts in front of you, you begin to understand how complex and broad the writer’s worldview is.

The presence of epithets in the presentation gives a feeling of special semantic depth, which is filled with irony, bitterness, sarcasm and bewilderment.

Epithets help add brightness to images

Types of epithets

In Russian, the epithet is divided into three types:

General language

The norm of literary phrases. There are about 210 epithets for the word “silence”: dull, exciting, deathly, sensitive.
Common linguistic epithets are:

• comparative. They are used to compare and liken one object to another (a dog's bark, a bear's gaze, a cat's purr);
• anthropomorphic. It is based on the transfer of human properties and characteristics of objects to a natural phenomenon, for example: a gentle breeze, a smiling sun, a sad birch tree;
• intensifyingly tautological. They repeat and intensify the signs of the object: soft cotton wool, soundless in silence, serious danger.

Examples of epithets: deserted life, sweet to write, gentle voice, sweet breeze, deathly silence.

Folk poetic

Such epithets appeared thanks to oral folk art. Basically, the folklore flavor has been preserved. Unlike others, they are limited in compatibility: blue river, orange sun, brown bear.

Examples: a clear month, an open field, living water, a painted tower, a good fellow, once upon a time, he walked and walked.

Individually-authored

A rare semantic association. Basically they are not reproduced, but have an occasional character.

Examples: chocolate mood, chamomile laughter, stone thunder, a golden cloud, a giant rock, stunted in the desert.

Such combinations do not fit into the framework of general literary norms, but they create an animated effect and enhance expressiveness.

Constant

When the techniques are used in set phrases, for example: distant kingdom, good fellow. When writing fiction, authors use:

• evaluative epithets (unbearable heat, lost feelings);
• descriptive (tired heart);
• emotional (dull autumn, sad time).

Thanks to epithets, an artistic phrase becomes more expressive.

How to find epithets in text?

Let's try to figure out what epithets are in the Russian language and how to recognize them in writing? They are placed immediately after the word being defined.

To achieve depth in the story and enhance the specificity of the sound, the authors place the epithets in a vertical position, that is, they are separated from each other. Famous Russian poets, when writing poems, placed them at the end of the line. When reading such works, the reader felt a sense of mystery.
To identify them in a work of art, you need to remember that they are different parts of speech. They are used as an adjective: the golden laughter of bells, the mysterious sounds of a violin.

It can also be found in the form of an adverb, for example: prayed fervently. Often they take the form of a noun (evening of disobedience); numeral (third hands).
For brevity, statements can be used as participles and verbal adjectives (what if I, pensive, can you come back?), and gerunds.

Epithets in literature

What is an epithet in literature? An important element that is impossible to do without when writing works of art. To write a compelling story that will attract the reader, it is important to resort to such techniques. When there are a lot of them in the text, this is also bad.

When a certain image, object or phenomenon is described by epithets, they will become more expressive.

They have other goals, namely:

• emphasize a characteristic feature or property of an object that is described in the presentation, for example: blue sky, wild animal;
• explain and clarify the sign that will help distinguish this or that object, for example: leaves are purple, crimson, gold;
• used as a basis for creating something comic, for example. The authors combine words that have contrasting meanings: light brunette, bright night;
• allow the writer to express his opinion on the phenomenon being described;
• help to inspire the subject, for example: the first ringing of spring rumbles, rumbles in the dark blue sky;
• create an atmosphere and evoke the necessary emotions, for example: alien and lonely in everything;
• to form in readers their own opinion on what is happening, for example: a small scientist, but a pedant;

Epithets are often used in poems, stories, novels and short stories. They make them lively and exciting. They evoke in readers their emotions about what is happening.

It is safe to say that without epithets, literature would not fully exist.

Examples of epithets in literature:

• Marmalade mood - A.P. Chekhov.
• Free Sea - A. S. Pushkin.
• Boring shore - A. S. Pushkin.
• Hostile elements - A. P. Chekhov
• My thoughtful and gentle land - S. A. Yesenin.
• Indifferent yellow fire - A. A. Akhmatova.
• In the wilderness of a dozing forest - N. M. Rubtsov.

Epithets in metaphor

In addition to the forms of epithets, they are divided according to the following characteristics:

• metaphorical. The epithet is based on an artistic device such as a metaphor, for example: a light winter drawing, autumn gold, barren birch trees;
• metonymic. Their goal is to create a metonymic essence for the subject, for example: birch, cheerful language, its hot, scratching silence.

If you use such techniques in your story, the reader will be able to perceive the described objects and phenomena more powerfully and vividly. In everyday life, art and fiction, epithets play an important role.

The most common phenomenon of artistic syntax is epithets. Epithet (from the Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, type of trope. Cheerful wind, dead silence, gray antiquity, black melancholy. When interpreted broadly, an epithet refers not only to an adjective that defines a noun, but also to an adjective noun, as well as an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb. Frost the warlord, the tramp the wind, the old man the ocean; The Petrel soars proudly(Bitter); Petrograd lived in these January nights tensely, excitedly, angrily, furiously(A.N. Tolstoy)

A constant epithet is often found in folk poetry, passing from one work to another. The sea is blue, the field is clean, the sun is red, the clouds are black, good fellow; the grass is green, the maidens are red.

The term “epithet,” which arose in ancient times, for a long time meant two phenomena: a definition (epitheton necessarium—necessary epithet) and the epithet itself (epitheton ornans—decorating epithet). Currently, the first meaning of the term has been lost, the second has undergone a significant change: the epithet is considered not as an ornamental device, but as a meaningful phenomenon that has several aspects (logical, psychological, linguistic, literary). There are three differences between the definition and the epithet.

• 1) From a cognitive point of view, a definition adds to the content of the defined concept a sign that limits its scope (“horse” - “black horse”, “gray horse”), that is, it carries out a logical classification. The epithet highlights and enhances a typical feature of what is being characterized (“gray wolf”) and thereby acts as an economical means of creating an artistic image; according to Gogol, Pushkin’s epithet is “so clear and bold that sometimes one replaces the whole description”
• 2) From a communicative point of view, the definition is detached from all aspects of the personality, except the purely intellectual, and claims to be objective. An epithet usually reveals the holistic attitude of the subject (intelligence, imagination, emotion and will), carries out a value qualification that is always, to one degree or another, uniquely personal.
• 3) From a linguistic point of view, the definition and the defined are a two-word (less often three-word) designation related either to everyday nomenclature (“wooden house”) or to scientific (scientific and technical) terminology (“Arctic Ocean”, “reinforced concrete” ), is a stable phrase, one of the types of clichés, an evaluative approach to which is usually not justified. The epithet and the characterized are a free phrase, ideally a fresh “utterance”, distinguished by originality. (it’s not without reason that they say that an epithet is the touchstone for every poet). The difference between a definition and an epithet, however, is relative and depends on the context; comparison of “a child’s soul” (in a child) and “I went to people with an open and childish soul” (A.A. Blok).

Each of the stages of the historical and literary process (change of styles and directions) was reflected in the epithet; according to A.N. Veselovsky, “the history of the epithet is the history of poetic style in an abridged edition.” An epithet characteristic of classicism, a generally accepted, genre-canonized element of a special “poetic language”; widely used as part of such techniques as periphrase, personification, allegory, through which “sonorous”, logically clear words were created. harmonic speech units filled with pathos (in higher genres) (“full countries”, “bloody sword”, “wise apples”). The epithet in the literature of romanticism undergoes changes characteristic of the style of the entire movement: the refusal to regulate verbal means (however, not entirely consistent: the maiden is either “young” or “young” - as an almost obligatory accessory), the replacement of the rational with emotional, intuitive (“minutes cancerous”; Tyutchev), universally significant and individual (“lonely sail”, Lermontov).

Realistic epithets reflected the general deep stylistic changes that accompanied the formation of realism: aspiration towards life-like forms, the displacement of a special “poetic language”, the final approval of non-canonical, personal styles (“syllables”). The epithet now allows you to unbiasedly combine accuracy and reliability (analytical knowledge) with the author’s (individual) value judgment; at the same time, a necessary condition is an artistic system of visual and expressive means that realize the holistic meaning of the work.

In later historical eras, in connection with the manifestation of “personal” creativity next to traditional and nameless folk art, which no longer expresses the collective generic life experience, but the ideological and artistic interests of an individual who has separated from the collective, the epithets gradually changed. They lost their constant and one-sided material-idealizing meaning, were enriched with various psychological associations, and became, in most cases, emotional in content. Veselovsky calls them “syncretistic epithets of modern poetry.”

The culmination of the development of associative and emotional epithets was the emergence of romantic creativity in the advanced countries of the world. Examples of metonymic and metaphorical allegory of artistic semantics are directly related to this.

In the literature of the heyday of the realistic principle of reflecting life, epithets with a material meaning, in their own way emotional, were widely developed. Having lost their idealizing meaning, they acquired specific object-based representation. A new flowering of emotional-metaphorical epithets arose in the poetry of the 20th century.

This trope can be observed in poetic works. For example, the following lines from a poem by A.A. Fet:

Below us with a roar cast iron

Bridges instant rattling.

In conclusion, I would like to cite an interesting observation by Veselevsky: “the epithets are getting colder...”. With these words, the scientist wanted to emphasize the property of epithets, however, like other types of tropes, to lose their novelty and expressiveness.

What is one of the main beauties of human interaction? Of course, in communication, sharing your thoughts, emotions, sensations with each other through language. Now imagine if all our conversations came down solely to the transfer of this or that information, bare data without any figurative characteristics or additional meanings reflecting our attitude to what was said. This would be reminiscent of the communication of machines exchanging various combinations of zeros and ones, only instead of numbers there are words that do not carry any emotional connotation. Expressiveness of speech is important not only in everyday communication, but also in literature (and here it is “vital”). Agree, it is difficult to imagine a novel, poem or fairy tale that does not use figurative definitions and others. This is why epithets are important in our speech, both oral and written. What it is? This is precisely what helps make the words and phrases used more colorful, more accurately convey their essential features and express our attitude towards them. Next, we will take a closer look at this concept, define the role and meaning of epithets in speech, and also try to classify them depending on the purposes and features of application.

The concept of an epithet and types of its constructions

Let's start by presenting a complete and deeper understanding of the word "epithet": what it is, what structure it has, how it is used in certain situations.

Adjectives as epithets

From ancient Greek, “epithet” is translated as something “attached” or “added” to the main thing. This is true. These special expressive words always come as a complement to others denoting some object (object or subject). Usually this is a “definition + noun” construction, where the epithet is a definition, usually an adjective (but not necessarily). Let's give simple examples: black melancholy, dead of night, powerful shoulders, sugar lips, a hot kiss, cheerful colors, etc.

In this case, adjectives are epithets that allow us to draw a more complete picture of a particular subject: not just melancholy, but “black”, oppressive, impenetrable; not just a kiss, but a “hot”, passionate, giving pleasure - such a description makes you feel more deeply what the author wants to convey, experience some sensations and emotions.

Using other parts of speech as epithets

However, the role of epithets can be played not only by an adjective; often in this “role” adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and even participial and participial phrases (that is, not one word, but a combination of them) appear. Often it is these parts of speech that make it possible to more accurately and vividly convey an image and create the desired atmosphere than adjectives would do.

Let's look at examples of using various parts of speech as epithets:

1. Adverbs. In a sentence they are circumstances. Examples: “The grass bloomed merrily” (Turgenev); “And I complain bitterly, and I shed bitter tears” (Pushkin).
2. Nouns. They give a figurative description of the subject. Act as applications or predicates. Examples: “Oh, if only Mother Volga ran back!” (Tolstoy); "Spring of honor, our idol!" (Pushkin).
3. Pronouns. They are used as epithets when they express the superlative degree of a phenomenon. Example: "...combat contractions...they say what kind of contractions!" (Lermontov).
4. Participles. Example: “...I, enchanted, cut the thread of consciousness...” (Blok).
5. Participial phrases. Examples: “A leaf ringing and dancing in the silence of centuries” (Krasko); “...borzopists...who have nothing in their language except words that do not remember kinship” (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
6. Participles and participial phrases. Examples: “...playing hide and seek, the sky comes down from the attic” (Pasternak); “... frolicking and playing, it rumbles...” (Tyutchev).

Thus, epithets in speech can be not only adjectives, but also other parts of speech if they help convey an image and more accurately express the properties of the object being described.

Independent epithets

Rarely, there are cases when expressive means are used in a text without a main word; epithets act as independent definitions without qualifiers. Example: “I look for strange and new things on the pages of old, scribbled books” (Block). Here the epithets “strange” and “new” simultaneously play two roles - both the definition and the defined. This technique is typical for the literature of the era of symbolism.

Methods for classifying epithets

So, now we have a fairly clear idea of ​​such an important term in literary theory as epithets. We looked at what it is and how it is used. However, for a better understanding of this phenomenon, it is important to be able to distinguish and classify epithets according to certain criteria. Despite the fact that the main and most important purpose of using these expressive means always comes down to one thing - to describe, to give an artistic definition of an object or phenomenon, all epithets can be classified. They are divided into groups according to different parameters, which we will consider below.

Types of epithets from a genetic point of view

The first group divides epithets into types depending on genetic origin:

• general language (decorating);
• folk poetic (permanent);
• individually-authored.

General linguistic ones, also called decorative ones, represent any characteristics that describe objects and phenomena and their properties. Examples: gentle sea, deathly silence, leaden clouds, ringing silence, etc. We usually use them in everyday speech in order to better convey the atmosphere of the event/object being described and our feelings to the interlocutor.

Folk poetic, or permanent, epithets are words or entire expressions that over many years have become firmly attached to certain words in people’s minds. Examples: good fellow, red maiden, clear month, open field and others.

Individual author's epithets are a product of the creative thought of the author himself. That is, previously these words or phrases were not used in speech in exactly this meaning, and therefore were not epithets. There are a lot of them in fiction, especially in poetry. Examples: “the face of the thousand-eyed trust...” (Mayakovsky); “transparent flattery necklace”, “rosary of golden wisdom” (Pushkin); “...an eternal motive in the middle of life” (Brodsky).

Epithets based on metaphor and metonymy

Epithets can also be divided into groups according to other criteria. Since figurative epithets are often associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning, depending on the type of this figurative word (which is an epithet), we can distinguish:

• metaphorical;
• metonymic.

Metaphorical epithets, as is already clear from the name, are based on “light patterns”, “winter silver” (Pushkin); “dull, sad friendship”, “sad, mournful reflection” (Herzen); “barren fields” (Lermontov).

Metonymic epithets are based on the figurative metonymic meaning of the word. Examples: “her hot, scratching whisper” (Gorky); “birch, cheerful language” (Yesenin).

In addition, epithets based on metaphorical or metonymic meaning can incorporate properties of other tropes: combined with hyperbole, personification, etc.

Examples: “Loudly winged arrows, beating behind the shoulders, sounded / In the procession of an angry god: he walked, like the night” (Homer); “He cursed, begged, cut / climbed after someone to bite into the sides. / In the sky, red as a Marseillaise / the sunset trembled, rounding around” (Mayakovsky).

This use of epithets makes it possible to express the author’s perception of some phenomena/objects even brighter, stronger, and more accurately and to convey these feelings to readers or listeners.

Epithets from the point of view of the author's assessment

Epithets can be divided into groups depending on how the author’s assessment is expressed in the work:

• figurative;
• expressive.

The former are used to express features and focus attention on some significant differences and properties of an object without expressing the author’s assessment of it. Examples: “...in the autumn twilight, how ghostly the transparency of the garden reigns” (Brodsky); “Your fences have a cast-iron pattern / And the flame of the punch is blue” (Pushkin).

Expressive epithets (as is already clear from the name) give readers the opportunity to hear the author’s attitude, his clearly expressed assessment of the described object or phenomenon. Examples: “meaningless and dim light” (Block); “the heart is a cold piece of iron” (Mayakovsky).

However, it is worth noting that such a division is very conditional, since often figurative epithets also have an emotional connotation and are a consequence of the author’s perception of certain objects.

Evolution of the use of epithets in literature

When discussing what epithets are in literature, one cannot help but touch upon the topic of their evolution over time. They are constantly undergoing change, both historically and culturally. In addition, epithets differ depending on the geography (place of residence) of the people who created them. Our upbringing, characteristics and living conditions, experienced events and phenomena, experience gained - all this influences the images created in speech, as well as the meaning that is inherent in them.

Epithets and Russian folk art

Epithets - what are these images in oral folk art? At the early stage of the development of literature, epithets, as a rule, described some physical properties of objects and highlighted significant, key features in them. The emotional component and expression of attitude towards the described object faded into the background or were completely absent. In addition, folk epithets were distinguished by exaggeration of the properties of objects and phenomena. Examples: good fellow, untold riches, etc.

Epithets of the Silver Age and postmodernism

With the passage of time and the development of literature, epithets became more complex, their designs changed, and their role in works changed. The novelty of poetic language, and therefore the use of epithets, is especially clearly visible in the literary works of the Silver Age. Wars, rapid scientific and technological progress and related changes in the world have led to changes in human perception of the world. Writers and poets began searching for new literary forms. Hence the emergence of a large number of “own” (that is, the author’s) words due to the violation of habitual morphemes, stem connections, new forms of words and new ways of combining them.

Examples: “Curls sleep on the shoulders of snowy whiteness” (Muravyev); “Laughers... who laugh with laughter, who laugh with laughter, oh, laugh with laughter!” (Khlebnikov).

Many interesting examples of the use of words and unusual depictions of objects can be found in the works of Mayakovsky. Just look at the poem “The Violin and a Little Tenderly”, in which “the drum... slipped onto the burning Kuznetsky and left”, “the stupid plate clanged out”, “the copper-faced helikon” shouted something to the violin, etc.

The literature of postmodernism is also noteworthy in terms of the use of epithets. This direction (which emerged in the 40s and received its greatest development in the 80s) contrasts itself with realism (especially socialist realism), which dominated in Russia until the end of the 70s. Representatives of postmodernism reject the rules and norms developed by cultural traditions. In their work, the boundaries between reality and fiction, reality and art are erased. Hence - a large number of new verbal forms and techniques, curious and very interesting uses of epithets.

Examples: “The diathesis was blooming / The diapers were turning golden” (Kibrov); “The acacia branch... smells of creosote, vestibule dust... in the evening it tiptoes back into the garden and listens to the movement of electric trains” (Sokolov).

The works of the postmodern era are replete with examples of what epithets are in the literature of our time. One has only to read such authors as Sokolov (an example is presented above), Strochkov, Levin, Sorokin, etc.

Fairy tales and their characteristic epithets

Epithets occupy a special place in fairy tales. Folklore works of different times and different peoples of the world contain many examples of the use of epithets. For example, Russian folk tales are characterized by the frequent use of distance epithets, as well as definitions describing the surrounding nature. Examples: “open field, dark forest, high mountains”; "far away lands, in a distant state" ("Finist - the clear falcon", Russian folk tale).

But Iranian fairy tales, for example, are characterized by oriental imagery and florid speech rich in various epithets. Examples: "... a pious and wise sultan, who delved into state affairs with extraordinary care..." ("The History of Sultan Sanjar").

Thus, using the example of epithets used in folk art, one can trace the cultural characteristics inherent in a particular people.

Epithets in epics and myths of different peoples of the world

At the same time, folklore works from around the world are characterized by common features of the use of epithets that serve a specific purpose. This can be easily seen in the example of ancient Greek myths, Celtic legends and Russian epics. All these works are united by the metaphorical and fantastic nature of the events; epithets with a negative connotation are used to describe frightening places, events or phenomena.

Examples: “boundless dark Chaos” (ancient Greek myths), “wild screams, monstrous laughter” (Celtic legends), “filthy idol” (Russian epics). Such epithets serve not only to vividly describe places and phenomena, but also to form a special perception and attitude of the reader towards what he read.

What is the richness of the Russian language? Epithets and their role in colloquial and artistic speech

Let's start with a simple example. A short dialogue of two sentences: “Hello, son. I’m on my way home. How are you? What are you doing?” - “Hi, mom. Good. I ate the soup.” This conversation is a dry exchange of information: the mother is going home, the child has eaten soup. Such communication does not carry any emotions, does not create a mood and, one might say, does not give us any information about the feelings and real state of affairs of the interlocutors.

It’s another matter if epithets “interfere” in the communication process. What does it change? Example: “Hello, my sweet son. I’m driving home tired and exhausted like a dog. How are you doing? What are you doing?” - “Hello, beloved mommy. I had a hot day today, in a good way! I ate the soup, it was great.” This example very well answers the question of why epithets in modern speech are so important, even if it is an ordinary everyday conversation. Agree, from such a conversation it is much easier to understand what mood each of the interlocutors is in: the mother will be glad that her son is doing well, and is pleased that he liked the soup; the son, in turn, will understand that his mother is tired and will heat up dinner for her arrival or do something else useful. And all this thanks to epithets!

Epithet in Russian: role and examples of use in artistic speech

Let's move from simple to complex. In artistic speech, epithets are no less, and perhaps even more important. Not a single literary work will be interesting and will not be able to captivate the reader if it contains few epithets (with rare exceptions, of course). In addition to the fact that they make it possible to make the image of the depicted phenomena and objects brighter and more expressive, epithets also perform other roles in:

1. They emphasize some characteristic features and properties of the object being described. Examples: “yellow ray”, “wild cave”, “smooth skull” (Lermontov).
2. They explain and clarify the features that distinguish an object (for example, color, size, etc.). Example: “Forest... lilac, gold, crimson...” (Bunin).
3. Used as a basis for creating an oxymoron by combining words with contrasting meanings. Examples: “brilliant shadow”, “poor luxury”.
4. They allow the author to express his attitude to the phenomenon being described, give his assessment and convey this perception to readers. Example: “And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word” (Sergeev-Tsensky).
5. They help create a vivid idea of ​​the subject. Example: “...the first ringing of spring... rumbles in the blue sky” (Tyutchev).
6. They create a certain atmosphere and evoke the desired emotional state. Example: “...lonely and a stranger to everything, walking alone along an abandoned high road” (Tolstoy).
7. They form in readers a certain attitude towards a phenomenon, object or character. Examples: “A rustic peasant is riding, and he is sitting on a good horse” (Russian epic); “Onegin was, in the opinion of many... / A small scientist, but a pedant” (Pushkin).

Thus, the role of epithets in fiction is invaluable. It is these expressive words that make a work, be it a poem, a story or a novel, lively, fascinating, capable of evoking certain emotions, moods, and assessments. We can safely say that if there were no epithets, the very possibility of the existence of literature as an art would be called into question.

Conclusion

In this article, we tried to most fully answer the question and examined various ways of classifying these means of expression, and also talked about the role of epithets in life and creativity. We hope this has helped you expand your understanding of such an important term in literary theory as epithet.